development as the basis for its future success. This orientation entails high risks (and high payoffs) and demands considerable technological skill, forecasting expertise, and the ability to quickly transform innovations into commercial products. A defensive R & D posture emphasize product modification and the ability to copy or acquire new technology. A converse shoe is a good example of a firm with such an R & D posture. Faced with the massive R & D budgets of Nike and Reebok, converse placed R & D emphasis on bolstering the product life cycle of its prime products (particularly canvas shoes).Large companies with some degree of technological leadership often use a combination of offensive and defensive R & D strategy. General Electric in the electrical industry, IBM in the computer industry, and Du Pont in the chemical industry all have a defensive R & D posture for currently available products and an offensive R & D posture in basic, long term research.2.IMPLEMENTING STRATEGY THROUGH ACTION PLANS, FUNCTIONAL TACTICS AND EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENTAfter strategies have been formulated, alternative strategies analyzed, and a particular option with its long-term objectives, generic and grand strategies selected, the next crucial stage is implementation.The implementation phase is referred to as the action phase of the strategic management process, and involves three interrelated vital steps: i.Setting up clear action plans and short-term objectives,ii.Developing specific functional tactics that create competitive advantage, andiii.Empowering operating personnel through policies to guide decisions.2.1Action PlansAction plans are derived from long-term objectives, which are then translated into current, short-term actions and targets. In other words, the personnel in an organization that actually do the work must be guided precisely on what should be done in the short-term, today and tomorrow, to ensure that the long-term objectives are achie...
