Data Bases • Custom Term Papers • Free Term Papers • Free Research Papers • Free Essays • Free Book Reports • Plagiarism? Links • Top 100 Term Paper Sites • Top 25 Essay Sites • Top 50 Essay Sites • Search 97,000 Papers @ DirectEssays.com • Search 101,000 Papers @ ExampleEssays.com • Search 90,000 Papers @ MegaEssays.com Free Essays • Term Paper Sites • Chuck III's Free Essays • Free College Essays • TermPaperSites.com • Free Essays • My Term Papers • Essay World • Planet Papers	Search Lots of Essays Back to Subjects - Computers The History of Computing The History of Computing The Computer - Man’s Greatest Achievment Computers are indeed approaching the status of the core operator of every electronic device or utility in the world today. Their “logic” and process can produce results millions of times faster than that of the human brain. They are at the helm of everything from an old walk man to the systems that keep the Earth’s continents in constant communications. They’ll likely soon be the basis of communications between other civilizations in outer space. When the computer was first introduced, it was simply a device of convenience for use of the masses or huge corporations and universities. The incredible machines have now grown so much since their introduction, that the World’s economy desperately depends on them to function. But computers have not always been so royal. The first machine to be classified as a computer used no circuitry of any kind, but was consistent entirely of gears and rods that made simple calculations in mathematics. As computers progressed in complexity and became more modern, society utilized them in nearly every way possible. They now are incorporated into every aspect of human life, especially for recreation and general home usage. It remains second in complexity only to that of the human brain. And yet it they still progress towards perfection. The idea of what is now modern computing originates (more or less) in the late 1700’s with the birth of computing’s conceptual father, Charles Babbage. He was born in London on December 26, 1791, the day after Christmas. He excelled in the area of mathematics (algebra for the most part), acting as his own instructor. He found himself to have been far in intellectual advance of his peers and “mentors”. Upon attending Trinity College, Cambridge in 1811, he still remained at incredible superiority to his tutors. After founding several societies (i.e. Analytical Society, Astronomical Society or Royal Astronomical Society), he became interested in mathematical calculation machines. This ultimately became his life interest. He pursued the invention of a machine that could compile mathematical tables. This gave way to the design of the “Difference Engine”. It performed somewhat complex mathematical tasks using gears and belts, not quite the hardware integrated in todays machines. He eventually conceived the design of an “Analytical Engine” that would be able to make virtually any calculation (at least those considered in the time period) given the proper commands and instructions. This machine, with a processor-like, mechanical system bared quite a resemblance to the functionality of todays computer components. Due to the lack of technology, however, the Analytical Engine was never produced. Although this final machine’s production was foiled by the time period’s technological failure to advance, his machines and designs would serve as prototypes in the future. Many others built and elaborated on the concept of such a machine as the computer. One of which was the “not-so-much-heard-of” Alan Turing. Sixty-five years after the death of Charles Babbage, Turing wrote his famous paper. The paper addressed the concept of a machine that would ultimately operate in the same way as the human brain, or simulate one with general accuracy. He predicted the completion of such a machine to occur around 1980, 50 years after his paper was written. By that time, the thousands of scientists gathered around the concept of artificial intelligence had focused more on the study of how the brain itself worked. In 1940, he designed what are now known as the first operational electronic digital computers. He was responsible for the port of the mechanical computer to that of the electronic world. The computers astounded many scientists. They were limited however, by their specialties. Each was designed for specific tasks, so later general purpose computers, like the ENIAC and Z-Series surpassed them with ease. Even so, Alan Turing is considered the most significant spur of the computer revolution. After the first physical machines were constructed, many new endeavors were undertaken. Machines that could calculate on new levels and carry out more complex tasks started to emerge - one of which was the ENIAC. ENIAC, unveiled on February 16, 1946, was the most powerful computer of it’s time. It was also one of the largest. It was a 30-ton literal labyrinth. It consisted of 17,468 vacuum tubes and 6,000 switches. It ate up a hefty $486,804.22 in funds. The goliath was so demanding that upon it’s first activation, all the lights of Philadelphia dimmed in a circular wave emanating from the university in which it was housed. The magnificent computer’s processing capability was exactly what scientists of t he time period had lacked since the beginning of time. It was quite literally a thousand times greater in speed than any computer to date. John V. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, two military workers were responsible. “The ENIAC could multiply in 2.8 milliseconds. It could divide in 24 milliseconds. ENIAC was truly an electronic whiz kid.” (Slater,65). A standard (or the time period) desktop computer took twenty hours to process a trajectory based calculation. It took the ENIAC 20 seconds. What forced the ENIAC the lower hand was the incredible inconvenience of rewiring the machine for every calculation type. Over time computers increased in complexity and usage. World War II was coming to an end and it was time for the computer age to be publicized. Thomas J. Watson (Sr.) an accomplished salesman took on the task. During his life, he was shuffled around through a number of large businesses(including NCR - National Cash Register Company and CTR - Tabulating-Recording Company), working his way to the top, and then being forced to jump ship. He was even served a one year jail sentence after being accused of trying to eliminate the second-hand trade while working as a top executive for NCR. After his release, he joined CTR and worked his way again to the helm before changing the company’s name to International Business Machines Corporation. By 1935, IBM had sales of only $35 million a year. His luck sky-rocketed as his business would soon follow. The Social Security Act of 1935 and the Wages-Hours Act were passed and the demand for his machines became his savior. In 1937, Watson backed Howard Aiken, another computer builder and researcher, with his project of building a faster calculator with a storage device that acted more as a general purpose computer. IBM fronted $100,000 dollars for the project, but would eventually fully fund the endeavor with the entire $500,000 needed. The project took six years to complete, although they had planned only for a few months. He used his knowledge from the partnership to further his business more into the computing world. The computer that was conceived from the Watson-Aikens partnership was called the Mark I. A relatively complex machine that was an attempt to simulate the thought process of the human brain. When the question arose who was to receive credit for the new machine, a conflict developed and the partnership was severed. Watson then assigned his engineers to the task of constructing a machine that would surpass the Mark I. They did, the SSEC, but IBM took it to the next level by making the computer publicly accessible. It was in fact the only public machine that could complete differential equations. It’s memory - consistent of 12,500 vacuum tubes - was capable of storing eight 20 digit decimals, and 150 numbers in it’s relays. It could also hold 20,000 numbers on sixty-six reels of punch tape. This was IBM’s debut into popularity in the computing business. One of the most incredible - yet simple - inventions that effects our digital world profoundly today was that of the transistor. Without it, computers today might possibly be as large as the ENIAC or the SSEC, and still using bulky vacuum tubes and human operators. The transistor, ranging in size today from the head of a pin to a fist(depending on appliance) was probably what made the hope computing age possible. The man responsible (in part) was William Shockley, a highly educated mathematician and scientist since his childhood. Having worked in the “field of vacuum tubing”, Shockley had a bit more of an understanding of the demand for a regulation device that was smaller, more powerful, and operated with greater efficiency than the vacuum tube. He worked in the vacuum tube department of Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey. He looked forward to the day when the vacuum tubes were replaced with a more electronic means of transfer. The transistor was his answer. With such installments in any computer, a new infinity was defined. The possibilities were completely rearranged. A computer that previously would occupy two basketball courts could now fit in a suitcase. But transistors, being the first step in miniaturizing computers, was not at all the last. Using circuit integration - a concept devised by Jack Kilby, a new type of internal organization of the hardware was born. Microprocessors would change the way a computer operated, channeling all data within a machine through one central “magic box”. The microprocessor used integrated circuitry (smaller conductors that closely followed the “lay of the land” within the computer) to simulate an intersection of all tasks and procedures that a computer had to carry out. Marcian E. Hoff would come to be known as the inventor of the “Computer on a Chip”. Now, boards that essentially housed what would have been considered a computer in itself was now simply a component and part of a greater whole. What was a computer is now a chip, and what is now a computer is the equivalent to hundreds of times the technology of only a couple years before. These microprocessors were the invention that would soon inhabit nearly every appliance in the home. They would be at the core of everything from watches to toasters to automobiles. They were also the final step in economizing the computer for use on a personal level. Computers were now entering the home. IBM pioneered the first of the PC’s for such use. With the stage set for the personal computer, another task was surfacing - making the computer more user friendly. At this point, computers had to be programmed and adjusted for use by their owners, but soon a new type of development would be needed. The software developing age was at hand. Instead of reprogramming a computer for their needs, people could buy, install, and use software that could specialize their computer to meet their own demands. Gary Kildall took the initiative and designed a program that would connect the user with every aspect of the computer so that the average person could operate a machine with relative ease. It was called an operating system, and although it’s definition has greatly changed, all computers are based tightly around the usage of an operating system. Kildall’s was known as CP/M - Control Program for Microcomputers. It was the only piece of software that controlled a computer’s floppy drive “from the inside” and was easy for users to “get to know”. Xerox was the next company to take the computing age to the next level of friendliness. It introduced what is known as a GUI or “Graphical User Interface”. This operating system with a pretty new faceplate was indeed quite a leap into the future of computing. They also utilized the “mouse”, a small, handy device that made navigating a GUI even faster and simpler. Many corporations started developing on the concept of the GUI, one of which was Apple Computers. At the helm of Apple was Steve Jobs. Racking up experience, working almost freelance and meeting new people, Jobs was sometimes considered lucky that he stumbled upon such a profession. One night at a club for computer enthusiasts, he met Steve Wozniak, a classic computer genius. Jobs and Wozniak made an incredible team. They built machines from scratch in Jobs’ parents’ living room. Wozniak built for the personal enjoyment, but Jobs had other ideas. The makeshift lab turned into a factory where the team produced computers and sold them to their friends and neighbors. Despite their crude conception, these machines were more reliable and less expensive than the majority of personal computers on the market. Jobs knew where the business was going and they developed a stylish graphical interface that appealed to their users. They upgraded their designs again and again to meet the demands of their customers. Soon other companies were purchasing Apple computers and putting in their “two cents” for a piece of the action. Intel put up $91,000 and Jobs found $600,000 in other venture capitalists. The computers progressed in popularity and eventually became the standard in personal computers. To date, the personal computer is, in most households, the most advanced appliance of all. They tie together many important parts of todays society. Computers have influenced the world so much that without them, we would be set back more than a hundred years. The computer began simply as a concept in the late 1800’s. It then evolved into a physical accomplishment. And from there, it has grown to a omnipresent aspect of every day life. Order and structure as we know them now depend on computers to maintain their integrity. The computer is likely the most magnificent accomplishment man has and may ever achieve. Bibliography: Word Count: 2215
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