antage. He discusses numerous governmental policies concerning housing, employment, and education which have led to racism today by creating a certain identity and investment in whites. This possessive investment, which began as covert with previous racist policies and is now inscribed within the U.S. social democracy, means that being white came to mean economic advantages and these advantages became natural. (Lipsitz, 198) In accordance with Hall, this history of governmental policies created a certain identity for whites.The first category of policies that Lipsitz explores is housing. He begins by explaining how from the start, European settlers in North Americaencouraged the appropriation of their land.(Lipsitz, 198) Then, in 1934, the Federal Housing Act aided and abetted the growth and development of increased segregation in U.S. residential neighborhoods by channeling loans away from older inner city neighborhoods and and toward white home buyers moving into segregated suburbs. In accordance with these policies, state tax monies and urban renewal efforts were generally directed away from black neighborhoods. (Lipsitz, 200) This led to a population loss in black neighborhoods which led to a decrease in political power, making minority groups more likely to be victimized. (Lipsitz, 201-202) They were found less likely to receive loans from banks and therefore received less access to housing choices leading to a higher housing cost. (Lipsitz, 203)Further, this victimization is only worsened when taking employment into consideration because not only did they have to pay more for housing than whites, but they earned less. Lipsitz argues that because the 1964 Civil Rights Act came so late, minority workers who received jobs because of it found themselves more vulnerable to seniority-based layoffs when business automated or transferred operations overseas. This meant that minority workers would suffer most from technological c...
