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Mountains, high plateaus, desert basins, river valleys, rolling uplands, and deep gorges woven together by the Columbia River and its tributaries make up the whole Columbia River Basin. People have been drawn to the big and beautiful Columbia River Basin for thousands of years. During the last century, natural resource-based industries supported small, growing communities. Today, people still appreciate the basin's rural flavor and quality of life. There are many beautiful places in this wonderful area of Oregon. In fact the whole basin was deemed a National Scenic Area. Besides the whole area there are two others natural areas that are very prominent. Among its many waterfalls Kalamath Falls is by far the most breathtaking. Not only can you enjoy the waterfall its self but also if you look hard enough you can see life happening all around you. If you travel up a lot higher you will see the natural trademark of the Pacific Northwest, Mt. Hood. With its 11,239 feet of beauty, what’s not to love? This amazing mountain is not only a natural area, but an area for recreation as well. From the river bellow to the mountains above the Columbia River Basin has a lot to offer. Most of the time, where humans gather, the surrounding landscape is altered in some way or another. Human settlement patterns tend to occur in natural area that can be converted in some way. For example fertile valleys are turned into farmland, and lowland forests are used for timber harvest. These areas typically support some of the most biologically diverse habitats. Increased human populations often result in habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. A larger human population requires more land for housing and roads, more food, and generates more waste. Population density in Oregon ranges greatly and is shaped by distance to the river. In the areas east of the cascades some average fewer than three people per square mile. In contrast, the highest populations occur in the Portland metropolitan area, in Multnomah (1,424 people per square mile), Washington (427 people per square mile) and Clackamas counties. Washington County and the Portland metropolitan area are nationally recognized as one of the most livable areas in the country. Located on the western edge of the City of Portland, Washington County is the second largest and fastest growing urban county in Oregon, with approximately 445,342 citizens. Focused residential and industrial growth has enabled the County to preserve more than 75% of its agricultural and forestlands. Washington County enjoys the benefits of a healthy urban and rural environment. Often referred to as the "Silicon Forest" for its continuing growth in the area of high technology, Washington County is home to electronics leaders such as Intel, Tektronix, and NEC, and is World Headquarters for Nike, Inc. Multnomah County is the smallest Oregon county geographically and yet it contains approximately 20% of the state's population due to the high density found in Portland and the surrounding cities. Multnomah County has a population of 660,486. As a part of the Portland Metropolitan Area, about 1/8th of the land area in Clackamas County is urban, but the majority is rural. Clackamas County encompasses 1,879 miles including Mt. Hood, the Mt. Hood National Forest and the Bull Run Watershed. Some of Oregon's richest farmland is located in areas surrounding Canby, Sandy, Boring, Wilsonville and Molalla. Major rivers include the Willamette and the Clackamas. The county business climate is strong and growing with concentrations of metals fabrication, machinery, distribution and computer hardware and software firms. Professional service firms and corporate headquarters cluster in Lake Oswego, Wilsonville and Clackamas Town Center. A thriving, large retail base is located in the Clackamas Town Center area and along McLoughlin Boulevard. Clackamas County has a population of 338,391. Although population density is one reflection of the impacts on bio-diversity, the effects of human development often extend far beyond the immediate location of where people live. Roads show another way the human modification may leave native habitats vulnerable. Some of the highest road densities in Oregon are found in watersheds where extensive road systems have been made for timber harvest. In the Columbia River Basin region most of the land is under private ownership and has already been converted to non-native habitats. Efforts are going to be made to find the last remnants of the regions native habitats and restore them. Federal agencies are working together to develop a scientifically sound ecosystem based strategy to maintain public lands in the Columbia River Basin. This far-reaching effort, the Columbia River Basin Ecosystem Management Project, is trying to help maintain healthy ecosystems and support the economic, social, and cultural needs of the people and communities that live there. This group is trying to restore forests, rangelands, and watersheds. They will also be looking at changes in water quality and quantity, streamside vegetation, extent of weed invasion, native fish and wildlife populations, and numbers and size of severe wild-land fires. Although most of the basin is rural, several urban centers are among the fastest growing in the country. The ultimate measure of success will be when many years from now people living in the Basin will continue a high quality of life, sustained by he basin’s rich natural resources. With their involvement an support, federal, state, private scientists, and land managers hope to restore ecological health to the basin so future generations will continue to be captured and enraptured by its natural beauty. A body of water, such as the Columbia River will inevitably be disturbed by various factors, which will affect the distribution of organisms in the water. Wind is a prime factor responsible for disturbing water. For example the strongest wind of the year was a 59mph wind from the south. I am sure that this strong wind had a lot of effect on the distribution of organisms in the water. Though wind may change the placement and habitats of organisms, there is a good side to wind. Wind can provide an essential cove and shade needed for survival of some species. Other than wind causing movement, a river will have water movement as water succumbs to gravity and moves downstream. These are relatively constant factors that affect water movement though, for example, human intervention can also cause water movement. The surface tension of the water will also affect the organisms that occupy the area, depending on the cohesion of water at the surface; it can affect the amount of oxygen that reaches organisms living below the water surface. The oxygen concentration of the water and the surrounding air will have great bearing on which organisms can survive in a particular environment. Oxygen is required for respiration in animals, and the concentration of oxygen in an area is determined by many factors, including temperature and abundance of organisms for example. Many chemical reactions and cellular processes rely on the availability of oxygen; therefore the concentration of oxygen in the ecosystem will inevitably alter the ecosystem itself. The same applies to carbon dioxide concentration. CO2 is required for photosynthesis, and can also affect the pH of the water. The amount of sunlight received also plays a large role in the Columbia River Basin’s ecosystem. The light from the sun provides light for the primary producers, plants. There are many factors that can affect the intensity and length of time that the ecosystem is exposed to sunlight. The first is the angle at which light strikes the surface of the water. During the day when the sun is high in the sky, more light can be absorbed into the water due to the directness of the light. At sunset, light strikes the water surface more acutely, and less water is absorbed. The aspect of the sun during times of the day will vary depending on the time of the year. The cloud cover of an area will inevitably affect intensity and length of time that light strikes the water of a freshwater ecosystem. Species of plants rely on a critical period of time where they receive light for photosynthesis. The 4 seasons in an ecosystem are very different, and this is because less light and heat is available from the sun in winter and vice versa for summer. In the Columbia River Basin this year the high temperature was 98F in June, and the lowest was 24F in November. These varying conditions will affect which organisms are suited to them. Altitude will also affect the aspect of which sunlight hits the freshwater ecosystem, therefore playing a part on which organisms will occupy it. Rainfall and temperature play another large role in the Columbia River Basin. In the year 1999-2000 this area received 33.25 inches of rainfall, that is 2.37 inches bellow normal, and the ninth driest year since 1941. This lack of rain greatly effects the surrounding organisms. The areas that received less than 30 cm of rain per year in the Columbia River Basin are seeing great effect on wildlife. Populations of both grassland and shrub-steppe species such as the sage grouse, Columbian sharp-tailed grouse, sagebrush vole, upland sandpiper, grasshopper sparrow, and pronghorn are declining throughout the basin. Climate varies greatly throughout the basin, depending upon elevations ranging from just above sea level to over 3,900 m. Annual precipitation can vary from about 25 cm to 250 cm. A common feature of the Columbia River Basin is the shrub-steppe ecosystem where moisture is scarce (coming mostly from snow in winter), the wind is persistent, and temperatures vary from 100F in summer to well below freezing in winter. Enzymes in an organism operate at an optimum temperature, and any deviation from this temperature 'norm' will result in below optimum respiration in the organism. All body temperatures in aquatic life vary directly with its environments. The health of aquatic ecosystems is critical to the entire Columbia River Basin. About 80 percent of all fish and wildlife in the basin use the streamside habitat at one time or another. Timber harvesting, livestock grazing, road construction, and mining have all dramatically changed aquatic ecosystems, affecting both water quality and quantity and altering water flows and temperatures. This, in turn, affects the types of wildlife, fish, and plants that can survive in the area. Salmon and other fish need aquatic habitat areas that are shaded and cooled by trees and protected with undercut banks vegetated by healthy grasses and sedges. The water should have plenty of woody debris where fish can hide and rest, as well as plenty of aquatic insects to eat. Not surprisingly, relatively untouched streams within wilderness or road-less areas tend to have the healthiest aquatic habitat conditions in the basin. As you can see, many factors will affect the overall existence of organisms in an ecosystem. The chemical and physical characteristics to begin with will determine which organisms are most likely to survive in the freshwater ecosystem. In turn, these pioneers entering the environment will actively manipulate these factors and change the schematics of the ecosystem as a whole, meaning that they also play a part in determining which organisms will succeed in a particular environment. On a more molecular level, the chemical compositions of the water, soil and surrounding air also play a part in determining the face of the ecosystem. When an ecosystem is barren and unoccupied, new organisms colonizing the environment rely on favorable conditions in the environment to allow them to successfully live and reproduce. As you can see, many abiotic factors can play a part in determining the end product, which animals live and succeed in the freshwater ecosystem. The sun provides sunlight for photosynthesis, but also provides heat giving a suitable temperature for organisms to thrive in. The temperature of a freshwater environment can directly affect the environment as a whole and the organisms that occupy it. Almost the whole Columbia River Gorge is a natural area. Its official title the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. The whole Columbia River Gorge is a natural must see site. The Columbia River Gorge is a spectacular river canyon, 80 miles long and up to 4,000 feet deep, cutting the only sea level route through the Cascade Mountain Range. It is more than a natural wonder; the Gorge is a critical transportation corridor and a home. A home to not only people but some very beautiful and unique organisms. The gorge holds biological importance in that it provides a wonderful habitat for many organisms, a lot of, which would be extinct without this rich land. The water body that flows through the gorge also contains some essential nutrients that help to maintain life on land. This area became a National Scenic area in 1986 when there were questions about what should happen to this beautiful land. President Ronald Regan made an act that creating the 292,500 acre Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. The National Scenic Area Act does not create a wilderness or park. Instead, it allows for existing rural and scenic characteristics to be retained, while it encourages compatible growth and development within urban areas. This beautiful area contains high mountains, gorgeous waterfalls, rolling hills, and peaceful meadows. Hiking, mountain biking, windsurfing, camping, fishing, boating, wildlife watching, birding, wildflower watching, photography, picnicking, rock climbing are just some of the activities you can do at the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. If you don’t have time to visit the whole area and take in all its beauty I will highlight two of the most amazing sites in the Columbia River Basin. Mount Hood serves as one of the most popular recreation areas in the Pacific Northwest. Mount Hood is the tallest of Oregon's Cascade peaks and rises to 11,239 feet above the beautiful Columbia River Gorge. This area is biologically important because the run-off from its volcanic slopes enriches soil in the valleys below. Mt. Hood offers the only year-round skiing in North America. There are many types of skiing available on the mountain, including downhill, cross-country and snowboarding. The mountain offers three major ski areas and 26 lifts. Several cross-country ski trails and off-road hikes follow the Oregon Trail in this area. This popular and scenic area offers a wide range of summer and winter recreation areas. The most popular activities include hiking, viewing scenery, fishing, camping, mountain climbing, kayaking, downhill skiing, snowboarding, and cross-country skiing. Climate in this region changes drastically with elevation. The area receives a high amount of precipitation. Much of the precipitation comes from October to April in the form of rain at the low elevations and as heavy snow in the higher elevations. Winter temperatures are normally cool at the lower elevations and cold at the higher elevations. Although snow is possible in the lowest elevations, it is infrequent and does not stay on the ground for long. Late spring, summer and early autumn bring the best chance for clear, sunny days and bring moderate temperatures. Multnomah Falls is the second highest year-round waterfall in the United States. The water of the Falls drops 620 feet from its origin on Larch Mountain. Unusually cold weather can turn this plummeting falls into a frozen ice-sickle, with a few drops falling from the bottom. The frozen Falls are a sight to behold. Nearly two million visitors a year come to see this ancient waterfall making it Oregon’s number one public destination. Fed by underground springs from Larch Mountain, heavy rains during fall, winter, and spring, and lastly spring runoff from Larch Mountain's snow pack, the flow over the falls varies usually being highest during winter and spring. Multnomah Falls offers one of the best places in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area to study geology exposed by floods. Five flows of Yakima basalt are visible in the fall's cliff face. Not only is the Multnomah Creek home to the Coho Salomon, its hold many other forms of life as well. This fall is a truly breathtaking sight to visit. Organism 1: Pacific Giant Salamander Scientific Name: Dicamptodon Tenebrus The Pacific Giant Salamander is the largest salamander in Oregon and Washington, hence the name. It has a bulky head and body, and large, muscular legs. They can grow to have a total length of 13 inches: that is one big salamander. One way to identify these salamanders is the adults are marked by a marbled pattern of tan and reddish-brown, chocolate, or occasionally slate. These large creatures are found in a large range of land. In our region they are found all the way through the Cascades, and the southwestern portion of the Oregon Washington border. Pacific Giant Salamanders inhabit cool, moist coniferous forests in the vicinity of cold, clear streams and mountain lakes. Terrestrial adults spend much of the non-breeding season beneath the surface in burrows or concealed among surface debris. They are active at the surface primarily at night during periods of high rainfall. These salamanders are among the relatively few salamanders that are capable of producing vocalizations. If bothered, they may produce a sharp, low-pitched yelp (another way to identify them). They may also attempt to bite and are capable of inflicting a painful cut. Their large size and powerful jaws make them a formidable predator of insects, slugs, snails, worms, snakes, and small mammals (shrews and mice). This Salamander is not one to mess with (if you are a small creature). Pacific Tree Frogs have a dark mask extending from the nostrils to the shoulders, and relatively long, slender legs. Their smooth moist skin may appear green, brown, reddish, bronze, or pale gray. Pacific Tree Frogs have an Y shaped figure between their eyes. The belly and chest are creamy white and rough textured. These frogs reach up to 2 inches in length. The Pacific Tree Frog is the most widely distributed frog in Washington and Oregon, and is most common in the Pacific Northwest. They can be found at elevations ranging from near sea level to 7370 feet. Outside of the breeding season, they inhabit a variety of habitats: woodlands, meadows, pastures, and even many urban sites may provide suitable habitat. Males can be heard throughout much of the year (particularly when it rains). The chorusing of these frogs is very common backgrounds for evening sounds in Hollywood movies, they are famous and they don’t even know it! They have sticky pads on their front and hind toes, which help them to climb freely about vegetation in search of their food, which consists of spiders and insects. Organism 3: Columbia white-tailed deer Scientific Name: Odocoileus virginianus leucurus The Columbia white-tailed deer is distinguished among the other 38 recognized subspecies of the white-tail by being one of the largest in size, and the westernmost in distribution. This deer has a cinnamon-brown coat, which turns blue-gray in the winter. This deer is found in native tidal spruce forest communities along with the Willamette, Columbia, and Umpqua River valleys. Due to habitat loss and disease it is very hard to find this species in the Willamette and Columbia valleys. The clearing of riparian lands for agriculture and un-restricted hunting had reduced the population of Columbia whitetails to a low of 200 to 400 animals early in the 1900's. In Washington, Columbia white-tails are divided into two herds--one on 2000-acre Tenasillahe Island reserve in the Columbia River, and one on the Columbian white-tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuge along the lower Columbia River. The Columbia whitetail thrived under the protection of these refuges and were even considered to be candidates for down listing in 1995. But, in 1996, both deer refuges experienced severe flooding. As a result of these floods, half of the Washington population of Columbia white-tailed deer was lost. Since then efforts have been made to recover these populations. A deer reintroduction effort will begin in 2002 to bring the sub-species onto two new islands in the lower Columbia. Scientific Name: Brachylagus idahoensis The pygmy is the smallest rabbit species in North America. It measures 9.2-11.6 inches in length, weighs a slight 0.88-1.02 lbs., and is able to fit in the palm of a hand. Unlike other rabbit species brown rabbit digs its own burrows in deep, loose soil. They are dependent upon sagebrush for food, comprising 98% of their winter diet and a good portion of their spring and summer diet. Mortality is high for both juveniles (an estimated 50% don’t survive the first five weeks) and also the species in general, which has a mortality rate of up to 88% per year. Predators include weasels, coyote, badgers, bobcats, raptors, and humans, as many hunters can’t distinguish them from other rabbit species. It is suggested that areas of tall sagebrush, a specialized habitat requirement, can be promoted by disturbances such as ungulate grazing and perhaps even by the burrowing and feeding activities of the rabbits themselves. Pygmy rabbit populations are patchily distributed within the Great Basin in areas dominated by tall, bushes and loose, deep soil. Organism 5: American peregrine falcon Scientific Name: Falco peregrinus anatum The peregrine falcon is said to be the fastest bird in the world. This crow size raptor is dark black with a white chest. One of its most distinctive features is its black mask. This species is in currently endangered. The decline of peregrines is largely attributed to the use of DDT, other pesticides or human development. Falcons died as well as eggshell thinning when they consumed birds that had ingested pesticide-treated insects, vegetation, seeds, or other items. American peregrine falcons hunt in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, meadows, coastlines and wetlands. Their hunting style is dramatic--an incredibly fast aerial attack (clocked at up to 200mph!) that stuns or kills a bird upon impact. Historically, cliffs were preferred nesting sights for this falcon, but today many reintroduced birds nest on high-rise buildings and other high metropolitan structures, feeding on the seemingly endless supply of pigeons found in most urban areas. Captive breeding, reintroduction, and habitat protection of this species have proven to be effective forms of recovery as populations within Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and many other states, are making dramatic comebacks. This medium sized frog that can be reddish-brown, tan, or olive-green, with irregular-shaped black spots on its back, sides and legs. Adults have a narrow, pointed snout, upturned eyes, and a light colored stripe on the upper lip. Females can grow to be 6-10 cm and males become 4-7 cm. The call of the Oregon Spotted Frog is a weak series of clucking noises, and is usually only heard during breeding season. Oregon Spotted Frogs are highly aquatic and live in or near permanent bodies of water, including lakes, ponds, slow streams and marshes. They prefer areas with thick algae and vegetation for cover, but may also hide under decaying vegetation. They are most often found in non-woody wetland plant communities (species such as sedges, rushes and grasses). Most Oregon Spotted Frogs hibernate and aestivate. Adults eat insects, mollusks, crustaceans and arachnids. Larvae eat algae and organic debris. Predators include bullfrogs, river otter, raccoons, herons, and garter snakes. The larvae are prey for the larvae of dragonflies, predacious diving beetles, fish and garter snakes. The timing of breeding is related to ice melt on lakes, ponds and marshes. Oregon Spotted Frogs lay their 1,300 eggs in the shallows of a permanent water source. The egg masses protrude above the water surface, which results in egg mortality due to freezing and desiccation. This frog can be cream, red, gray or black. Adults may have a light streak extending from tip of snout to eyes. The Tailed Frog lives in cold, fast moving streams with cobble stone bottoms. Tailed frogs are mostly aquatic, but adults may emerge during cool, wet conditions to forage on land. Breeding season lasts from May through September, and females deposit their eggs in strings under rocks in fast-moving streams. Habitat loss and modification due to road building and timber harvesting may be contributing to Tailed frog decline. Increased sediment in streams fills in the stream bottoms and reduces habitat for the larvae. Tailed Frogs are found from the Pacific Northwest to northern California, extending into Idaho and Montana. Organism 8: Oregon Silverspot Butterfly Scientific Name: Speyeria zerene hippolyta This butterfly is orange and brown with silver spots on the undersides of both wings. Historically, this species was found along the pacific coasts of southern Washington and northern Oregon. Today, populations of the Oregon silverspot butterfly within Washington have been extirpated. This medium sized butterfly is reliant on coastal salt-spray meadows and other open fields where the climate is characterized by mild temperatures, heavy rainfall, and fog. The most important feature of the habitat is the presence of the western blue violet (Viola adunca), which is the essential food source for silverspot larvae. This habitat is rare due to invasive vegetation and development. Oregon silverspot populations are believed to be currently extinct within Washington State. Small numbers are still found in Oregon and with the reintroduction of the western blue violet (Viola adunca) into damaged habitat, populations will return to Washington State Scientific Name: Oncorhynchus kisutch Multnomah Creek is home to the Coho Salmon. Many Coho migrate here from the Pacific Ocean to spawn during mid October. During spawning season, the males turn brick red, while the females turn dark silver. At the age of three, the Coho will leave the Pacific Ocean return to Multnomah Creek to spawn and die. However, only a small percentage of salmon live to reach their natal stream or spawning grounds. Those males that survive the trip are often gaunt, with grotesquely humped backs, hooked jaws and battle-torn fins. The females are swollen with a pound or more of eggs. Both have large white patches of bruised skin on their backs and sides. Since salmon do not feed once they leave the ocean, some will die on the way because they lack enough stored body fat to make the trip. Many will be caught in fishermen's nets. Those that evade the nets may have to swim through polluted waters near cities. Many must make their way over power dams on fish ladders. In the tributary streams, waterfalls and rapids are steep and swift enough to eliminate all but the strongest. Otters, eagles, and bears stalk the salmon in shallow riffles. Once on the spawning grounds, the fish battle each other: females against females for places to nest, males against males for available females. Most adult Pacific salmon species feed on aquatic insects and small fish. They require pure, well-oxygenated cold water and are one of the first species to suffer when water quality is degraded. Many are seriously threatened by habitat destruction, hydroelectric dams on migratory rivers, over-harvest of rare stocks, and competition with hatchery fish. Scientific Name: Oncorhynchus mykiss Steelheads are slender with a blue-green color and regularly spaced spots. The black spots also cover both lobes of the tail. The black coloration fades over the lateral line to a silver white coloration blending more to white on the stomach. Steelhead and rainbow develop a distinct pink to red strip-like coloration that blends along the side, both above and below the lateral line. The distinct and beautiful coloration of steelhead during the freshwater spawning period is apparently important in regard to the mating and reproductive process. The silvery sheen and streamlined shape of ocean-bright steelhead is essential to survival in the ocean environment. Steelhead habitat requirements change as they go through different life phases. Adult steelheads need to have access to their natal streams for spawning. The best pools for habitat are those with cover in the form of large woody debris, undercut banks, root masses, and large boulders. Cool, clean water is essential for the survival of steelhead during all portions of their life cycle. In North America, steelheads are found in Pacific Ocean drainage from southern California through Alaska. In Oregon they are found throughout the Columbia River. The major factor causing steelhead population decline is freshwater habitat loss and degradation. This has resulted from three main factors: inadequate stream flows, blocked access to historic spawning and rearing areas due to dams, and human activities that discharge sediment and debris into waterways. Bibliography: 1) Oregon’s Living Landscape: Strategies and opportunities to conserve bio-diversity, by the Oregon Diversity Project. 2) Endangered Plants and Animals of Oregon, by the Agriculture Experiment Station at Oregon State University. 3) Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems, by the National Research Council. 4) California’s Salomon and Steelhead, by Alan Lufkin. 5) www.cce.paisley.ac.uk Word Count: 4918
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