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A variety of sites located on the Canadian Shield, the zone of thick glacial deposits to the south, and the transition between them will be the focus of the report. It is supplemented with previous research on the region. September 8, 1999, day one of the field study involved an area of largely granite bedrock that is part of the Canadian Shield and is the most northern point of study (see Map 2). September 9, 1999, day two, involved three main areas of study: the Bridgenorth esker (Map 3), Mark S. Burnham Park (Map 4), and the Rice Lake drumlin (Map 6). These sites are in areas of thick glacial deposits. September 10, 1999, day three, involved studying the Warsaw Caves (see Map 5) as a transition zone between Precambrian Shield rock to the north and Paleozoic rock to the south. A general map of the entire study region is provided by Map 1. The site visited on this day was informally known as the Bedrock Knob (NTS grid reference: 120 342). It is in an area where patches of limestone and exposed bedrock are common. The bedrock is part of the Precambrian Canadian Shield, comprised mainly of hard igneous and metamorphic biotite and gneiss granite rock. The Knob is outlined by relatively low elevations on all sides and a peak of exposed bedrock. The bedrock is relatively smooth and bare and provides clear evidence of glaciation in the area. The exposed rock is light pink in colour and is covered in lichen, mosses, and grasses. The grasses grow in small trenches on the Knob where material has collected over time. There are striations running southeast to northwest on the exposed bedrock (298 degrees). Some of the striations turn into fractures, where rock has broken off possibly due to freezing and thawing. These striations are the result of debris being scraped along the surface of the rock by a glacier. The fractures are likely due to the release of pressure caused by ice and rock being melted and eroded off the bedrock. In some places fractures are intersected by fractures running perpendicular, which may suggest something on the composition of the rock (i.e. The way it fractures under pressure, the process under which the rock was formed or transformed, or the direction of ice movement). The highest points of the Knob are the most barren probably because material is washed down from the peak and into shallow, low-lying areas where it collects and allows plant life to grow. Chipping the rock with a hammer found it to be brittle and produced an unusual and pungent odour. Relatively few highly weathered clasts are situated on the Knob; however, the perimeter has a greater number of clasts that vary from angular to highly weathered. Clast size ranged from approximately 15cm to 1m across the long axis. The road leading up to the Knob from the bus stop is littered with clasts of similar composition but angularity increased. At the sides of the road is exposed rock because the road has been cut into the bedrock. Vertical fractures in the rock are the same as the fractures on the Knob. There are three distinct plateaus of rock on the northern face, approximately 15m from the peak of the Knob. Inspection of the first plateau yielded identical granite bedrock and a similar smell was notes when chipping the rock. Signs of active erosion are visible along the entire slope. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. Day two consisted of five individual stops being made during a north-south transect of the Peterborough drumlin field. The first stop was made at an esker (NTS grid reference: 096 171) near the town of Bridgenorth, Ontario. The esker is deposited sediments from the meltwater of stagnant ice. The orientation of the esker is parallel to the direction of meltwater flow. It is comprised of well-rounded limestone material (light to dark grey) with smaller amounts of Shield material (white, red, and pink). The abundance of limestone infers that the material was not transported a great distance because limestone is prominent in the area. Stratification of the sediments is evident due to excavation on and around the esker. A layer near the top of the esker contains large sediments relative to the rest of the esker that is almost uniformly sand and gravel. The range in size of the materials deposited can be explained by a change in river velocity over time. The higher the velocity of a stream the larger the materials it can transport. Certain layers of sand have become slightly cemented by calcium carbonate. The next stop was made at Mark S. Burnham Park (NTS grid reference: 175 085). The majority of the park is located on the southern half of a drumlin. This drumlin is unique because it is relatively untouched by humans, perhaps due to the establishment of the park. A traverse of the marked path revealed many smaller clasts that appear to be sedimentary rock. A sample with two extremely flat faces on which sand particles can be removed by friction led to the conclusion of sedimentary rock. Less frequent and larger clasts are mainly granite igneous and metamorphic rock. They are identifiable as such because of distinct metamorphic layers visible by colour ranging from pink to white to grey. A large (38-inch) limestone rock, characterized by irregular pits and cracks, is another clue to the composition of the drumlin. Another sample was determined to be limestone with calcium bicarbonate and a black mineral on the surface of the rock. The black mineral fragmented at right angles but was not identified. The drumlin is difficult to identify because from the entrance to the park (leeward side of the drumlin) the drumlin is not visible by relief and is symmetrical (the peak is at the centre of the drumlin). Upon further inspection the size, shape, and orientation of the drumlin becomes apparent. Detailed information on the composition of the drumlin was not available because digging in the park is prohibited. A brief stop was made between Mark S. Burnham Park and the final site for the day, the Rice Lake drumlin. County road 2 and the 2nd line of Peterborough County (NTS grid reference: 345 084) cut through this particular drumlin. The measurement of slope on three faces of the drumlin was: 4 degrees on the northern face, 4 degrees on the eastern face, and 11 degrees on the western face. Clasts of well-rounded sedimentary rock, varying in size from pebbles to boulders, were visible on the surface. A few 0.5 to 1m granite boulders also rest on the surface. Geology of the area was not obvious because farmland, road, and forest covered the drumlin. The final stop at the Rice Lake drumlin (NTS grid reference: 294 026) yielded some unusual features which have led to this feature being classified as both a drumlin and an esker. The area of study has been disturbed by excavation allowing improved analysis of the feature. The surface clasts are uniformly limestone and granite, ranging from 20cm to 1cm. The northern end of the landform reveals stratification of sediments, contrary to the southern end. This landform could be an esker due to its elongated shape and the stratification at the north end. The relationship between the stratified sediments and the sand and gravel till could be that, first, a drumlin was created, then, water flow around and on the drumlin deposited sediments. Day three simply consisted of one stop at the Warsaw Caves Park (NTS grid reference: 285 265). The Indian River runs through the park and is diverted, for a short distance, underground. A thin cover of glacially derived deposits on the bedrock allows for easier geological exploration. The riverbed is quite shallow (approximately a meter) and flat with only a thin layer of sand and debris. The geology in this area has had a considerable affect on the types of landforms produced. Sedimentary rock is more susceptible to erosion than granite rock, thus, features produced by water flow are more common. Throughout the park evidence of the limestone bedrock is visible. Small creeks run almost underground and odd-shaped rocks litter the surface. Part IV: Comparisons of Sites and Previous Literature The geology of the study region is extremely complex because of the repeated glaciation of southern Ontario. The underlying Precambrian rock is part of the Grenville Orogenic Belt and is 1.3 to 1.0 Ga old. There are two subdivisions of the Grenville Province that border each other on the study area: the Central Gneiss Belt and the Central Metasedimentary Belt (Easton, 1992, p. 719). The transition between the Precambrian rock to the north and Paleozoic rock to the south is not a smooth one and observations support the existence of both. “The Dummer moraine demarcates the contact between Paleozoic strata and the underlying Precambrian shield exposed north of the Peterborough field. The drumlin field is underlain by southwestward-dipping Ordovician limestone and shale.” (Liberty, 1969, p. 788) Paleozoic rock to the south is specifically from the Simcoe group of Middle Ordovician Limestone (Coniglio et al., 1990, p.6) and was formed 500 to 425 million years ago (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 2-6). Natural resources such as soil, vegetation, mineral aggregates, and watercourses are greatly affected by the geology of the area (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 2-i). This fact is supported by the local variations of the landscape elements studied in this report. The Bedrock Knob, as discussed earlier, is an elevated portion of the Canadian Shield. The Shield rock is a hard crystalline structure that is very resistance to weathering and erosion. Geomorphological features in the area are largely due to glaciation. Recent changes to the area have occurred where glacier deposits or sedimentary rock are present. Geomorphology was not studied by a particular group of students at the Bedrock Knob, so it was not a major consideration in this area. This may be because, while some Paleozoic outliers are present, most of the surface material has been transported away by glaciers, revealing the granite bedrock. The area was not one of deposition. The terrain is rough with some rolling hills and swampy areas (evidence of poor drainage). At the base of the cliffs, a general low point for the area, there is a swamp. Dead trees in the swamp indicate drainage has recently changed, possibly due to the construction of the road. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. The Bridgenorth Esker is in an area of thick glacial deposits and sediments. Stratification is visible on an excavated section of the esker and suggests a range of water velocities produced this landform. Generally, the top portion of the esker contains the majority of stratification, while the rest of the esker is a mixture of sand and gravel. This suggests that the majority of the esker was deposited over a short duration of high flow and the stratified sediments over a longer duration of lower flow. There were also small changes in composition from one end of the esker to the other. Mark S. Burnham Park is a nearly central location in the Peterborough drumlin field. Drumlins situated in and around the park provide a useful framework for studying drumlins because some have not been disturbed, preserving the natural form, while others have been excavated, allowing easy inspection. Swamps are common, visible on Map 4, of the low-lying areas around drumlins since the surface is flat and drainage is poor. The brief stop at a drumlin on the way to the Rice Lake drumlin reinforced the geomorphology viewed in and around Burnham Park. One difference that this area appears to have is better drainage between drumlins. There is greater human activity on the drumlin that has likely altered the drumlin from its original form. Roads cut through it to reveal similar sediment composition as previous drumlins. Another stop at the Indian River identified it as a misfit stream that runs through an old glacial spillway. The Rice Lake drumlin is oriented 15 degree from north on the border of Rice Lake. There is a continuous, 10-degree slope towards the lake that forms part of the river valley. The drumlin is comprised of highly weathered sands and gravel and a large portion of the drumlin has been excavated, likely for industrial use. The discontinuous, stratified sediments on the northern section provide evidence of folding and shifting. Geomorphology in the area is complex and visual observation is not enough to determine the processes at work. Water has had a great effect on the geomorphology of this area. The limestone bedrock structure is weak enough that water can erode it and dissolve certain minerals common in limestone. The area is an old glacial spillway and large volumes of Calcium Carbonate rich water ran through the rock. The result is numerous karsts, kettles, sinkholes, and potholes formed near the surface. The formation of these features continues today and the bedrock structure is constantly subject to weakening by moving water. Karst features will eventually destroy themselves and become collapsed caves. Stalagmites will also form in undisturbed caves by the dissolving of Calcium Carbonate from the cave walls. The conditions for karsts have at one time been present in the Warsaw Caves area. These conditions include limestone, acidic ground water, a falling freshwater table, and high water flow. One of the unique geomorphologic features is the area where the river disappears underground. It disappears because weaker rock under the surface has been removed allowing the river to follow the path of least resistance. Weathered grooves in the rock and the extremely smooth rock of the kettles are evidence of moving water eroding the sedimentary rock. Shale and dolomite were two other types of sedimentary rock identified. Part IV: Comparisons of Sites and Previous Literature The Otonabee River drainage area encompasses all of the sites visited during the field course (Adams and Taylor, 1992, p.4). The study area is on the border of two major physiographic regions called the Laurentian Highlands to the north, and the St. Laurence Lowlands to the south (Easton, 1992, p.1030). Three physiographic sub-regions within Peterborough County were identified as the Oak Ridges Moraine to the south, the Peterborough Drumlin Field in the middle, and the Dummer Recessional Moraine to the north (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p 2-i). According to the Otonabee Region Conservation Authority (1983, p. 2-i): “Each region was produced by a different stage of the Wisconsin Glaciation that ended about 7000 years ago. Morainic ridges, till plains, drumlins, eskers, kames, and spillways are among the predominant glacial landforms. Bedrock from both the Precambrian and Paleozoic eras are located within the watershed. Glacial drift covering the bedrock is generally thin to nonexistent in the north and gradually becomes deeper in the south, reaching depths of over 30 meters.” It is important to note that the Wisconsin Glaciation was the last of four major glaciation periods but evidence of previous glaciation is very rare in Ontario, and may be disregarded when describing landforms in the region (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 2-1). Boyce and Eyles (1991, p.787) describe the Peterborough drumlin field as “the largest in central Canada, (and) contains more than 3000 drumlins on the northern margins of Lake Ontario.” Most of the drumlins are less than 1.6km long and 0.4kn wide and the average height of 23 meters. They also average 6 to 8 drumlins per square kilometer. (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 2-4) As the field study progressed it became apparent that while drumlins have been extensively studied their origins are still subject to disagreement and controversy (Boyce and Eyles, 1991, p.787). A particularly interesting relationship between drumlin shape and drift thickness was made by Boyce and Eyles (1991, p. 788): “This shows a systematic decrease in drumlin length/width ratios, from narrow, elongate forms in the north where drift thickness is reduced, to much larger, ovoid drumlins in southern areas of thick drift cover.” Another relationship touched upon by Boyce and Eyles (1991, p.789) was the asymmetrical and ovoid shape of the southern drumlins reflects the decreased time available for streamlining by the glacier. While different types of drumlins were difficult to identify in the field, the three main types of drumlins are present in the Peterborough drumlin field and are described as “a) those composed primarily of rock (rock drumlins); b) those formed from pre-existing drift (erosional drumlins); and c) those formed of till or mixtures of till and minor amounts of stratified material (depositional drumlins).” (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 2-3) Erosional drumlins are identified as the most common in the Peterborough drumlin field by Boyce and Eyles (1991, p. 790) and could explain the highly weathered clasts and sands present in the drumlins visited in the southern area. “Rock Drumlins are found only in the northern part of the area where the drift is thin. Gravenor (1957) notes that a few erosional drumlins exist near the Oak Ridges Moraine, and he theorizes that these drumlins represent the fringe sections of the moraine, that were drumlinized.” (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p.2-3) In the Dummer Moraine area, “Clasts are usually angular in shape and range in size from pebbles to large boulders. Clasts are mostly Paleozoic in origin and the till matrix is characterized by a high calcite content and calcite/dolomite ratio, reflecting local bedrock sources.” (Barnett and Kelly, 1987, p. 65) They also identified the more rounded clasts (page 65) present in nearby drumlins. These clast characteristics were more common in the northern latitudes of the field study. Eskers were another feature of study during the field study and the idea that the Bridgenorth esker was formed by stagnant ice is supported by the Otonabee Region Conservation Authority (1983, p. 2-4) and is described as being “formed in tunnels at the bottom of the stagnant ice.” The Rice Lake drumlin was subject to some ambiguity as to whether it was actually a drumlin or an esker. Stratification in the north end led some to believe the landform was an esker. This theory can be supported by the Otonabee Region Conservation Authority (1983, p. 2-4): “Where the esker channel narrowed, the material is noticeably coarser, and where it widened, the material is finer. In some locations well stratified deposits of sand, silt and clay exist, denoting the location of a subglacial pond.” Over the course of the three-day field study, notes on the changes of the types of landforms from north to south are concurrent with the literature presented here. The Bedrock Knob is particularly susceptible to weathering by rainfall because there is little vegetation to intercept the water. Material is washed down from the Knob and becomes part of the sandy soil surrounding it. The valley on the northern side of the Knob concentrates runoff in a shallow swamp that is evidence of poor drainage. Drainage problems were increased when the road was built because it blocked drainage from an area that was previously well drained. It is evident that the area was well drained at some point, because the stumps of trees stand in the middle of the swamp. Table 1 in the Appendix contains the results of hydrologic test on the swamp water. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. The hydrology of the Bridgenorth Esker was inferred through observation since there were no nearby water bodies to be tested. At the time this site was visited, it was raining and this allowed for observations on the drainage of the area. Water pooled on the surface where human activity was present because the ground had been compacted by man and machine. The esker itself drained very well and no pooling or surface runoff was noted. It is common for eskers and areas of glacial deposits to drain well because the permeability of deposits is high. The Mark S. Burnham Park was not subject to hydrologic tests, however, certain factors of water movement can be observed. The park contains an original old-growth forest that suggests a high degree of interception occurs before water can enter the soil. An extensive canopy, fallen trees, undergrowth, and a thick leaf litter all prevent runoff and direct percolation into the soil. Even when water reaches the soil it can percolate quickly through the sand and gravel of the drumlin. Most of the water probably drains to the swamp and Meade Creek in the southern corner of the park. The swamp exists either because the water table has reached the surface, bedrock is near the surface so water cannot percolate downwards, or human activity has blocked drainage for the area. Combinations of the three are also possible. The stop at the Indian River (grid reference: 269 118) was simply to collect a water sample for analyzing. The results of the analysis are in Table 1. A comparison of water samples will be made later in this section. The hydrology of the Rice Lake drumlin is very similar to the other drumlins and eskers visited on this day. Well-drained, permeable glacial till comprises the drumlins of the Peterborough area however changes to the drumlins can affect the hydrology. This particular drumlin has been excavated approximately 23 meters from its original peak. Runoff channels are visible on the excavated slopes of the drumlin. Information of the hydrology at the Warsaw Caves is largely a collection of tests made on a water sample from the Indian River. The results of the tests are included in Table 1 and interpretations and comparisons will be discussed later in this section. Part IV: Comparison of Sites and Previous Literature The entire area this field report is concerned with is part of the Otonabee Watershed. It includes the Indian and Otonabee Rivers that drain south into Rice Lake. These rivers are part of major glacial spillways that are visible by the large, wide river valleys. Barnes (1965, p.136) states that “both the drainage and the drumlins have an almost uniform north-east to south-west orientation, which was the direction of the advance and retreat of the glacier.” The hydrology tests (see Table 1) did not produce any major differences in water characteristics. The most noticeable differences were between dissolved oxygen, chloride, and alkalinity tests of the swamp water from the Bedrock Knob and the Warsaw Caves Indian River water. Vegetation around the exposed shield rock was a primarily mixed deciduous and coniferous tree. White spruce and Balsam Fir dominated the area along with Red Oak and White Birch, long grasses and various shrubs. Lily pads and Cattails (0.8m tall) are in the swamp and mosses and ferns blanket the boundary between open water and forest floor. The exposed bedrock of the Knob is covered in lichen and moss. One to two centimeter high, dark green moss that required little soil and grew in the depressions in the rock was identified as Hair Cap moss. Reindeer lichen was also identified. It was six to ten centimeters tall, required little soil, and grew next to the Hair Cap moss. Young vegetation and dead tree trunks make a portion of the swampland relatively new. Vegetation of this type is common around Ontario at this latitude. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. Most of the forest surrounding the Bridgenorth esker appeared to be replanted or is new growth. The trees are only ten to fifteen years old and the undergrowth shows little age variation. Undergrowth was less dense around the esker, where deciduous tree dominated, and was denser on the esker, where coniferous tree dominated. This may be because the fine needles of coniferous trees allow more light to penetrate to the undergrowth. The Mark S. Burnham Park was unique because it contained an old growth drumlin forest. The undergrowth was not a dense as expected and was comprised of saplings, ferns, and mosses. A variety of decomposing trees littered the forest floor as a sign of the old age of the forest. The park was largely deciduous trees, particularly Red Maple, Hemlock, Ironwood, Sugar Maple, Beech, and Basswood. Some spruce trees also populated the area. A small sample of tree trunk diameters was taken at each site this day and provided in Table 2. The stop between Burnham Park and the Rice Lake drumlin provided another look at vegetation on the north-south transect of the Peterborough drumlin field. Only a small part of this drumlin retains natural vegetation, the rest is roads and farmers fields. The trees are generally deciduous, and a patch of white birch occupies the forest. The coniferous trees are sporadic and young, amongst tall grasses and shrubs. The litter layer of the forest is quite deep, adding to the high interception rate of the forest. The drumlin on the border of Rice Lake yields evidence of grazing by live stock. Fecal matter covers the hillside and the excavated section of the drumlin and both areas show signs of compaction by trampling. Pine and maple trees dominate the area with some oak trees, vines, and tamaracks. This area, as with most of Ontario, has probably been logged at least once. The vegetation at the Warsaw Caves was indicative of an area with exposed and weathered limestone bedrock. Cedar trees were the most prominent trees and because their spatial dispersion and foliage is dense, little undergrowth was present. Poison ivy grows in patches throughout the forest along with thick moss cover. The most noticeable change in vegetation occurs on the eastern side of the Indian River. Instead of evergreens, there was dense deciduous vegetation. Observations concluded that there is a greater amount of deposits in some places along the eastern side of the river, which are favourable to deciduous vegetation. Part IV: Comparisons of Sites and Previous Literature Forests in the Peterborough region vary distinctly depending, largely, on the local features and geology. All of the tree types identified in the field were supported by Barnes (1965, p.84) and he indicated the importance of local climate, soil, topographic and drainage features influencing tree species in an area. The Otonabee Region Conservation Report (1983, p.5-i) states that “most of the trees are immature, with only eight percent of the resource greater than 80 years of age”. This reflects the field reports of replanted forests with little age variation. Three soil pits were dug at the Bedrock Knob so that soil horizons and characteristics could be observed. The first pit was located 49 meters from the bus stop about half way between the bus stop and the Knob. The first layer was 5.7cm of fine clay, the transition layer was 6.1cm of rounded sand, and then the parent material was reached. The two layers were subject to compression tests that equaled 0.75 kg/cm2 and 2.95 kg/cm2 respectively. The parent material consisted of fine clay with a few rocks embedded and no orientation was visible. The next pit was dug 12 meters across the road from the Bedrock Knob and exposed a 6.4cm humus layer, a 4.9cm rusty brown, coarse sand layer, a slightly lighter 5.0cm transition layer, and two layers of fine, yellow sand totaling 30.1cm. The silt to fine sand is obviously sediment with iron as a dominant mineral. Variations of colour in the horizons are caused by the oxidation of the iron. The humus layer was too soft for a compression test but the layer of fine sand measured 0.52 kg/cm2 and the coarse sand, 2.52 kg/cm2 . Erosion of the Shield rock is likely responsible for the soil horizons found in the area but the particular processes related to transportation and deposition are undetermined. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. The Bridgenorth esker was not an ideal location for studying soil because very little was present on and around the esker. The esker had virtually no soil horizons, except for the thin layer of humus on top; the rest was sand and gravel. Mark S. Burnham Provincial Park has surprising shallow soil depth for an old-growth forest. The humus layer was thick and well-developed but under that was a mere 9-10cm of material. This material was mainly clay-loam and gravel but because a soil pit could not be dug, further exploration was prohibited. An extensive root system close to the surface also prevented a good approximation of soil depth. The root system lies close to the surface possibly because the drumlin allows water to percolate so quickly that the roots must remain near the surface where water remains longer. The stop at the drumlin on the county crossroads yielded some brief soil notes. The soil was less than 50% silty loam and horizon development was smooth. The stop at the Rice Lake drumlin did not provide much more information on soils since there was only a thin layer of humus on top of continuous sand. The soil at the Warsaw Caves is quite limited and does not vary over great distances. Generally, soil was 6cm to 12cm deep on top of the bedrock. There were no soil horizons because the material was mainly humus with some silt and clay. Coarse sand dominates the beach area and is noticeable on the riverbed. The thin layer of soil made digging soil pits useless. Part IV: Comparison of Sites and Previous Research The local geology of each site has an influence on the characteristics of soil composition. Eroded Precambrian Shield rock is generally sandy (Easton, 1992, p.1030), which is concurrent with field findings at the Bedrock Knob. Carbonate rocks, such as limestone, that are subjected to erosion produce silty and sometimes clayey tills (Easton, 1992, p. 1030), which were present intermittently throughout the area on day two. The Warsaw Caves also showed evidence of this type of eroded material. Soils of the Dummer Moraine area are “stony and shallow” (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 3-6) and are therefore not ideal for agriculture. Soils of the Oak Ridges Moraine are characterized by infertile, sandy, and excessively drained soils. (Otonabee Region Conservation Authority, 1983, p. 3-6) There are three main areas of study at the Bedrock Knob. The first is the exposed Shield rock at the peak of the Knob, the second is the forested area surrounding the Knob, and the third is the low-land marsh next to the Knob. Each area has certain factors of all of the previous sections that make up the microclimate. Unfortunately, detailed field notes on microclimate were not available for any of the areas over the three days. The weather on the day the site was visited was generally overcast with some precipitation and sunny breaks. The sun and clouds have a great influence over the microclimate because they influence light, shade, precipitation, evaporation, and humidity. The more cloud cover the less light reaching the surface and the lower the rate of evaporation, with a chance of precipitation. Conversely, the less cloud cover the more light reaching the ground and the higher the rate of evaporation, with no chance of precipitation. Vegetation density and type can influence the amount of light and precipitation reaching the ground. Forests are generally cooler because the canopy intercepts sunlight. Precipitation intercepted by vegetation can affect soil moisture, surface and subsurface runoff and erosion. The temperature fluctuated over the day at the Bedrock Knob, depending on cloud cover. An increase in humidity near the swamp was the only major change in humidity over the day. Part II: Bridgenorth Esker, Burnham Park, and the Rice Lake Drumlin. Microclimate for this day was not considered to an extent that it is useful so inferences on the microclimate will be made from literature on the climate of the Peterborough region. The weather for this particular day was windy with some precipitation and low light intensity. Information on microclimate at the Warsaw Caves from field notes was insufficient to report. Some notes were made on the conditions of the caves and they included a wet-bulb reading of 16°C, a dry-bulb of 16.5°C, and a relative humidity of 95%. Major condensation within the caves was visible. The microclimate at this site will be inferred through literature on the climate of the Peterborough region. Part IV: Comparison of Sites and Previous Literature Understanding the climate of this region may help to understand the microclimates of the areas visited. Barnes (1965, p.136) states that “climatically the Otonabee Watershed lied in a ‘transition zone’ between the mild section of the Ontario lakeshore to the south and the more severe interior climatic region of Southern Ontario to the north east.”. Moderate temperatures are largely influence by the proximity of many lakes, and although small, they do have an effect. The number of frost-free days for the region is between 120 and 150 days with a mean monthly temperature of 6.4°C (Barnes, 1965, p. 136). Precipitation averages 73.41cm annually, 79% of which is in the form of rain and 21% is in the form of snow. Snowfall occurs primarily between December and February and averages 15.19cm annually. The average evapotranspiration rate for the Otonabee Watershed is 52% of the total precipitation and when evapotranspiration rates exceed precipitation rates, soil moisture deficit results. (Otonabee Region Conservation Report, 1983, p. 8-4) The characteristics of climate have now been identified but some detail on how to apply this to microclimates was mentioned in Part I. Generally, the Peterborough region contains a gradient from exposed bedrock to high levels of glacial till. The complex geology and repeated glaciation of the area has developed a variety of glacial landforms such as drumlins, eskers, moraines, spillways, caves and kettles. Drumlins are by far the most common glacial landform in the area and Boyce and Eyles (1991, p. 787) state that: “Previous work in the area, based on limited subsurface data, interpreted drumlins as the product of large-magnitude subglacial meltwater flows (Sharpe, 1987; Shaw and Sharpe, 1987), subglacial erosion (Gravenor, 1953, 1957), or deformation of overridden proglacial sediments (Crozier, 1975).” Large differences in water tests were expected yet the results show only slight variations in the water. It seems that the local geological and environmental factors do not have as great an influence on water composition as was expected. The entire area is part of the Otonabee Watershed that drains the area into the Otonabee and Indian River and then into Rice Lake. Vegetation in the Peterborough region is more dependent on the local characteristics of drainage and geology than on the variations in latitude. The soils in the region are largely the result of differences in parent material and glacial till. None of the soil horizons appeared overly thick and consisted mainly of sands and gravel. The lack of organic, deep soils is probably due to the glaciers resetting the soils. The climate is slightly moderated by the lakes around Peterborough and detailed field notes on microclimate were not available. In conclusion, the Peterborough region contains a wide variety of glacial products that have been and could be very useful to professional and amateurs studying the effects of glaciation. Test for: Bedrock Knob Indian River Warsaw Caves Temperature(degrees Celsius) 20 ? 18 Dissolved Oxygen 14 mg/L 5 mg/L 21 mg/L Total Hardness(Calcium Carbonate) 307.8 mg/L ? 256.5 mg/L Alkalinity(Calcium Carbonate) 307.8 mg/L 170 mg/L 205.2 mg/L Table 2: Tree Trunk Diameter in Centimeters North-South Transect Burnham Park Drumlin (345 084) Rice Lake Drumlin Deciduous 55.6, 48.5, 19.8, 22.6, 19.4, 14.0, 13.2, 15.1, 11.4, 8.2, 33.0 65.8, 5.9, 9.0, 5.8 Coniferous 27.5, 37.3, 45.2 46.0, 122.1, 64.2 Adams, P. and Taylor, C. The regional setting of Peterborough and the Kawarthas. Peterborough and the Kawarthas. 2nd Edition. Peterborough,Ontario: Heritage Barnes, A. Otonabee Region Conservation Report. Toronto: Department of Energy and Barnett, P.J., Kelly, R.I. The Quaternary History of Southern Ontario. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada. July, 1987. Boyce, J.I., and Eyles, N. Drumlins carved by deforming till streams below the Laurentide ice sheet. August, 1991: Geology, v.19, p. 787-790. Coniglio, Melchin, and Brookfield. Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Biostratigraphy of Ordovicain Rocks of the Peterborough-Lake Simcoe Area of Southern Ontario. Lambeth, Ontario: Ontario Petroleum Institute Inc., 1990. Easton, R.M. The Grenville Province and the Peterozoic History of Central and Southern Ontario. 1992. Geology of Ontario (Ontario Geological Survey), v.4, n.2, Otonabee Region Conservation Authority. Watershed Inventory. Ottawa: Ministry of Surveys and Mapping Branch. Peterborough, Ontario. (Map). Ed. 6. 1:50 000. Ottawa: Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada, 1985. Bibliography: Word Count: 6285
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