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Back to Subjects - Government & Politics

Police Brutality

Police Brutality Police brutality and corrupt cop issues have increasingly risen. The problems posed by the illegal exercise of police power, which is an ongoing reality for individuals of a disfavored race, class, or sexual preference. There are innocent people beaten or put in jail or prison. They can be helped, but the ones beyond help are dead. There are good cops and there are bad cops. Under the law, article 7 states: “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhumane degrading treatment or punishment” (Amnesty 42). The definition of police brutality is the excessive use of deadly or physical force made by a police officer or officer of the law. By kicking, punching, using weapons, shooting, and killing innocent victims. If every cop followed the articles there would be no brutality. If the court systems barely help, if the police won’t do anything, and the media isn’t around. How can we prevent police brutality? With violence in America steadily rising you might support the fact that cops have to use physical force on criminals. But is excessive force needed for “unarmed criminals?” Is it necessary to shoot at an “unarmed” man 41 times because he made a suspicious move? Is it fair to have a man with no previous crime record to wait over 15 years on death row, while the legal system does nothing? While another man has a wooden stick shoved so far up his intestines that they ruptured. Instead of sitting down watching all this happen around you and just being glad it isn’t you. You can do something about it. Prevent police brutality; corrupt cops and the killing of innocent lives. The heinous, cruel and inhumane acts the following cops have done are by no means justified, moral, or legal. The Articles of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states the rights that we the people have: Article 6 states: Every human being has the inherent right to life. Article 7: No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or punishments. Article 10: All persons deprived of the liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person. Article 26: All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. Source: Amnesty International Report. United States of America Police Brutaility and Excessive Force in the New York City Police Department. [online] Availablehttp://www.amnesty.it/Ailibtop/1996/AMR/25103696.htm 42-43. June 1996. Knowing all this, these are the guidelines, which the police are supposed to follow. Why isn’t police brutality being prevented? “The average police officer in America is never going to draw his gun during his entire career.” Said a former NYC Commissioner of police (Rockwell 1). Yes it’s understood force is sometimes necessary to refrain criminals when they get out of line, or put the police officers life endanger but: “The idea of inherent criminality, the belief that people who commit crimes are animals and incapable of rehabilitation leads police to treat people brutally. By refusing to prosecute police the justice system promotes police brutality” (Rockwell 2). The majority of the victims of police brutality are blacks and Latinos, males and are unarmed. Their deaths range anywhere from shootings, excessive force, while in custody, suicide by cop, domestic violence, and high speed chases. Statistics show that police brutality is definality a real problem that is wide spread, not just in the United States but worldwide. With minorities being the highest at risk. Why are minorities, the poor, the young, and the powerless at so much more risk of being brutalized by police? A question with an answer that still remains unknown. “We live in a society where a murder occurs every 24 minutes, a rape every 6 minutes, a robbery every 55 seconds, aggravated assault every 33 seconds, motor vehicle theft every 20 second and a burglary every 10 second” (Policing the Police 61). Just because blacks make up 14% of the population in America and are 63% of the prison population (Rockwell 2) doesn’t make it right for police to harass them more. As many lives are beaten and killed by the officers in blue hardly anything is done to stop them. People are shot and killed with little or no provocation. Dying from chokeholds, hog tying, pepper spray, beatings, and high-speed chases. These people are sometimes left on the streets to die, in their own homes, jails or prisons, and even in police stations. In 1995 Congress ordered Janet Reno to complete a national statistics on police brutality, but she failed to do so (Rockwell 1). It is understood that police put their lives on the line everyday they step out into the world with their blue uniform and that sometimes they are put in the position to make split-second life or death decisions on what to do with people who appear unpredictable and dangerous. According to Officer Gary Hankins member of FOP: “With combat goes stress. Because of the special nature of their jobs (p) olice officers die younger, suffer more injuries and stress related disabilities then the average American” (Policing 63). Does those factors justify police brutality or corruption among cops? “The patrol guide states: preserve human life and use deadly force as a last resort, to not cock back guns, to not shoot fire warnings, to not endanger innocent people, and if do have to shoot warning shots you, must use verbal warnings” (Amnesty International Report 25). Police brutality and corruption within cops doesn’t seem to be happening in the small suburban towns where the rich and the powerful stay. “Police brutality seemed to occur in varying degrees wherever we uncovered corruption particularly in crime-ridden drug infested precincts often with large minority populations levels of brutality, fists to face, nightstick to ribs, and knees to groin” (Amnesty 4). Because someone resisted arrest, made a suspicious move or just happened to be at the wrong place at the wrong time doesn’t justify police brutality. It has been reported that victims were “ill treated” after they questioned police authority or became involved in relatively minor disputes (Amnesty 7). Brutality comes to those who pose a threat, bystanders who take photographs or videotape incident or even criticize police treatment. But strict police guidelines restrict arrest of onlookers and innocent bystanders who speak their minds. In many cases, brought forth to the public, little or nothing is done to the officers involved prosecutions are rare and police officers either aren’t disciplined or receive minor infractions. With the statute of limitations for disciplinary action changed from being five years to three years, and is now eighteen months. If no charges are within the eighteen-month period, all charges are dropped (Amnesty 38). With police protecting their own known as “Blue Wall of Silence” or “Code of Silence” referring to the unwilling law that police officers don’t inform on other police officers (Policing 58). It is no wonder why it’s so hard to make charges and take police to court when police claim that injuries were from resisting arrest and the victims provoked them. With cases difficult to bring about a lawsuit, sometimes long and drawn out becoming expensive for the victims family to handle and others families being intimidated by cops. It’s to the point why even complain if nothing will be done. Making it harder for police officers to be able to be brought to justice especially in an eighteen month time period. Most penalties for an police officer is an loss of ten or more vacation days or pay, suspension up to 30 days, probation, dismissal from the force up to 10 days or dealt with internally without a trial (Amnesty 37). With police brutality comes corruption. “The Mollen Commission found serious corruption included officers protecting and assisting narcotics traffickers, conducting unlawful searches and seizures, committing perjury and falsifying records; and engaging directly in drug trafficking and robberies” (Amnesty 4) All this was found when in 1991, six New York City officers were arrested on drug charges and questions were raised on how they did all this without being noticed. The department had certain blindness to what was going on. Internal Affairs Divisions had minimized their control efforts of police brutality and corruption instead of exposing it. Anybody found trying to report or investigate police misconduct had suffered from hostility, lack of cooperation, and in some cases reprisals (Amnesty 4). It seems like the only ones doing anything are programs and groups like Refuse and Resist, an organzation who speak out against brutality, NAACP who fight for the civil rights of people of color, The National Coalition on Police Accountability another group who bring forth corrupt cops, or people from the Stolen Lives project, who focus on lives taken by police officers after an incident of a young boy by the name of Anthony Baez was killed by police. It doesn’t seem like you have a chance against the court systems and less a chance with police officers. There are other recorded cases of police brutality before Rodney King, but they weren’t caught on videotape. On March 3, 1991 a police chased occurred in Los Angles California lasting 8 miles. After being gun downed, he was found drunk and high off PCP, 4 officers were ordered to jump on King. King however, threw them off his back. 500,000 volts of electric darts were then ordered on him to quiet him down, King gets up and a second volt is ordered and King recovers from that and gets up again. While this is going on George Holliday wakes up from all the noise. He films the incident; 10 seconds are blurred because he was trying to get a better view. King proceeds to charge at Officer Lawrence Powell. Powell hits King with a baton; three other officers kicked, and beat King with their nightsticks. 19 seconds were caught on tape, mostly of King lying on the ground trying to get up while the officers were beating on him. When the media got a hold of the story. Everything got blown out of proportion. Political leaders around the U.S. got involved for support of Rodney King. When the cops were acquitted of all charges except for being guilty of civil rights violations. The city was outraged, and a riot broke out, flames and broken glass from looters filled the city streets, 54 dead an more than 2,000 were injured, and the city was left torn apart (Leibovich 1-3). This would be the beginning of more police brutality attacks around the nation. Another major case dealing with excessive police brutality and the cruel injustice one man would have to endure is Abner Louima, one of many who was brutally beaten in a cruel and inhumane way and living proof of the horror of police brutality. Abner Louima was a 30-year-old Haitian immigrant with no criminal record. It was August 9, 1997 around 3:30 a.m. in front of a nightclub in Brooklyn, New York. He was arrested after police broke up a scuffle. On the way to the 70th Precinct station house officers, Charles Schwarz, Thomas Wiese, and Justin Volpe punched, kicked and beat Louima with a police radio. Arriving at the station at 4:00 a.m. the officers took him to the bathroom and sodomized Loumia with a wooden stick and then ramming the stick into his mouth, breaking teeth in the process. This three-hour attack on Louima left him with a punctured colon, bladder and ruptured intestines. Several hours later after being left in a cell he was taken to the Coney Island Hospital and was listed in critical conditions, needing surgery. Abner Louima would never have normal bodily functions again. The police blamed the beating on rough sex at a gay bar. When accusations came to play, the police of course denied everything and claimed Louima was lying about the beatings. The cop’s supervisor, Michael Bellemo is charged with trying to cover up some of the beatings if convicted could be sentenced up to 10 years in prison. There are charges of sexual abuse and assault and a $55 million lawsuit against the city (Abner Louima’s Story 1). The officers pleaded not guilty to the charges in State Supreme Court and were free on $100,000 bail each. Volpe finally, pleaded guilty and received 30 years. On March 6, 2000 the jury convicted, Thomas Wiese and Thomas Bruder who received 5 years in prison, while Schwarz faces 25 years to life in prison for civil rights violations. While in some cases the cops receive punishment and justice is done, and still other cases there seems to be no justice. Such as in the case of Amadou Diallo, whose life was robbed from him and no justice, has yet to be done. Last February 4 Amadou Diallo a 22 year old immigrant from W. Guinea, who worked long hours as a street vendor selling socks and videotapes, was shot down while in front of his home in Manhattan, New York. He was shot 41 times, only 19 bullets entered his body. Four officers, Edward McMellon, Sean Carroll, Kenneth Boss, and Richard Murphy who belong to the Street Crime Unit (SCU) and their theme is “We Own the Night.” The SCU is notorious for stopping and searching large numbers of Blacks and Latino men without probable cause. The officers were traveling in an unmarked car in plain clothes in search of a serial rapist. It is still unclear how Diallo and the officers first came into contact, but Investigators believe the officers stopped him as he was leaving his house. The officers felt Diallo was acting suspicious and had ducked his head back into the vestibule from which he had just came from. The officers ordered Diallo to freeze. The officers claimed while identifying themselves Diallo didn’t stop and halt. Claiming it was dark and the officer’s thought he was going for a weapon, and feeling threatened and therefore fired upon him 41 times and only hitting him 19 times. Diallo was found later unarmed only carrying a beeper, wallet and his keys when he was killed. During the trial there was speculation that McMellon and Carroll fell backward off the steps after the first string of shots. Defense tried to argue that the falls may have given the officers the impression that they had been hit, triggering the second string of shots (Chronology of the Louima police torture case 1+). The big argument is whether or not; Diallo was already down at any time during the shooting. According to the defense, Diallo never fell during the shooting, only when the shooting stopped. In the autopsy report however, the medical examiner Dr. Joseph Cohen forensic pathologist found result that tell a different story. Three shots were found that would suggest that Diallo was either falling or already down as the officers continued to shoot at him. The bullet going through the front left shin and traveling up the leg from front to rear. Another through the bottom of the foot, and finally one to the right shin, which traveled upward until lodging itself behind the knee. According to Cohen the only way Diallo could have been standing upright when he suffered the wound was if one of the officers was standing directly below him and shooting upward. If Diallo had been standing up the bullet would have traveled horizontally from the shin to the back of the leg, not directly up the leg (Robinson 1). The gunshot wounds had perforated Diallo’s spine, spinal cord, aorta, kidneys, spleen, and intestines. When the bullet entered through the aorta, which is the largest artery in the heart, the heart couldn’t pump enough blood to the rest of the body. The doctor’s found that 45% of Diallo’s blood leaked into his chest cavity (Robinson 2) In the trial, the officers were acquitted. Diallo was held responsible. He’s “suspicious” movements had provoked the officers to shoot at him. The officers only received 30 days suspension and were put on desk duty afterwards (Robinson 4). How they got off so easily is a mystery. All officers had previous records and complaints of police brutality against them. Officer Boss had previously shot and killed another black man, Patrick Bailey on October 31, 1997. Two of the other cops had previously been involved in non-fatal shootings (Stolen Lives Project 235) Knowing the New York state law and police department policies about using minimum amount of force unless necessary. Where was the minimum used? How can 41 shots at an unarmed man be justified because he made a “suspicious” move? Diallo was given no warning that officers had guns. No warning shot were given unless you count the 22 bullets that missed him. The officer’s lives were in no way in danger or at risk, only Diallo’s life was at stake. He was the only one that died. We couldn’t have police brutality without corruption. In the Mumia Abu-Jamal case and trial there was a little of both. In Mumia’s case you will either think he deserves what he got and it’s fair or that he suffered injustices form the court systems and was framed. Mumia at the time of the crime was 27 years old, like the other two previous case studies he had no criminal record. Mumia was a well known for his radio journalism, radicalism against police. He joined the Black Panthers at 15. It was found out later that he has been under surveillance by the FBI and police since he was 15. After the downfall of the Black Panthers he later joined MOVE, a black militant anti-police group and wrote about police corruption for over 20 years. He was a cab driver, after getting robbed one night he started carrying a gun. On December 9, 1981 Mumia was driving his taxi,when he saw police officer, Daniel Faulkner a 6ft heavyset man, beating his younger much smaller brother to a bloody pulp with a 17inch flashlight. There is a lot of speculation on who shot the first shot, and whether or not Mumia even fired a shot at all. When police arrived they found Mumia sitting on a curb 4feet away from Faulkner, with a bullet in his chest wound. On the way to the hospital in the paddy wagon police beat Mumia. Mumia is charged with 1st degree murder, which is capital murder when the victim is a police officer. No matches were ever found between Mumia’s gun and the bullet that killed Faulkner. Police never tested Mumia’s hands to determine whether he had recently fired a gun or smelled his gun barrel to see if it had recently been fired. Ballistics report proves that the gun found on Mumia was a .38 caliber the weapon that killed Faulkner however was a .44 caliber weapon. While at the hospital lying on the floor police officers claimed Mumia shouted out that he killed Faulkner. According to the testimony of Priscilla Durham a hospital security guard and former best friend of Faulkner, Officer Gary Bell said at the 1982 trial. But officers interviewed before hand never mentioned this “confession” in any of the police reports for more than two months. Officer Gary Wakshul who had been with Mumia since the paddy wagon ride to the hospital claimed Mumia hadn’t said a word the entire ride. Sixty-four days later he changed his original statement to match the other officers. He claimed he had forgotten, and had figured it wasn’t that important. Throughout the whole trial there were many confessions changed, always to benefit the defense against Mumia. Robert Chobert a cab driver was near the scene of the crime, 50 feet away. In his statement he said the shooter ran away. Mumia was found 4 feet away from Faulkner. An hour later, Chobert changed his story to fit the police reports. Chobert also said the shooter was heavyset, 6 feet tall, and wearing a light tan shirt and jeans. Mumia is over 6 feet tall, lean, and was wearing all dark clothes. Three days later Chobert changed his story to saying the shooter wore a dark shirt, no longer 50 steps away but about a cars length away, about 10 feet from the cop. It should be added that Chobert had a drunk driving record and had been driving with a suspended license the night of the killing. He asked Officer McGill during the trial if he could help him get his license back. This was never mentioned during the defense. No fewer than five eyewitnesses have made statements at one time or another that supported the defense theory that someone ran away from the scene of the crime. During the next 6 month process of police looking over evidence and putting their case together, Mumia’ lawyer wasn’t doing much. Anthony Jackson was right out of law school, an alcoholic, addictive to amphetamines and other drugs. Mumia’s defense team were given an insufficient amount of funds to investigate, which only allowed him to talk to two witnesses, after which additional funds were requested but denied. Mumia felt he had a better chance at representing represent himself, while Jackson had to act as a backup lawyer. In 1982 the trial began. Judge Albert Sabo was assigned to the trial. Sabo was under sherriff of Philadelphia county for 16 years, member of the Fraternal Order of Police (FOP), has sent 32 blacks, 2 Asian, 2 whites and 1 Latino to death row, the more than any other judge in the nation. Judge Sabo was known for siding with the prosecution. During the jury selection, illegal peremptory challenges to get rid of the 11 of the 14 blacks eligible for the jury were made. The jury ended up consisting of 2 blacks and 10 whites, one including a friend of another officer shot in the line of duty. Much of the prosecution evolved around Mumia being a member of the Black Panther Party and MOVE, which were both portrayed as a hate group. The best defense Mumia’s lawyer could use was that Mumia was a peaceful, law abiding man. Mumia was convicted to 1st degree murder and would receive the death penalty. The case was retried again in 1982, Judge Sabo denied any new discoveries made and denied over 25 subpoenas about the restrictiction of Mumia’s lawyers being able to ask certain questions to witnesses (Taylor 1+). Mumia’s trial is still pending. He has already spent over 15 years on death row waiting for his execution. There has been a 15-year silence between him and his brother; neither will talk about the night of the shooting or the events that followed. The most that Mumia ever said was, “I’m innocent of these charges.” Taylor 1+). In 1981 in Philadelphia the maximum penalty of manslaughter is ten years with parole eligibility after five (Taylor 1+). How can we prevent further injustices and heinous acts from occurring? How do we get to the bottom of all this? And who can we get to be involved and help? Go to the Internal Affairs Department give, and keep giving them follow up letters to show that you’re serious. Write a letter to the District Attorney’s Office, city counsels, mayor, State Attorney Office, or FBI. Get the media involved by writing to newspapers, radios, or television stations. You can make and pass out fliers and get churches involved. The community should know and be involved with what’s going on around them (Cop Crimes 1) Police Brutality and Corruption must end. No more innocent lives need to be taken away by the hands of the police. We can no longer be harassed, bullied, beaten or even killed by the same people who are supposed to be protecting us. We have to protect ourselves from them. The way to prevent more events from occurring is to be informed. No more being irrgroant to the world around you. In the cases at point, I agree with Mumia Abu-Jamal when he said, “They don’t serve the poor, the powerless nor the uninfluential, they never have.” (Refuse and Resist 2) The fact is there are many cases of police brutality and corruption. Some not good enough to make it to the front page of the newspaper or to the news. Not enough is being done; lack of community efforts are being made to help. There are good cops and there are bad cops. In this thesis, I have not focused on those who do their job well or right, but instead it’s focused on those who use illegal tactics, excessive force, involved in drug trafficking and even killing innocent unarmed people. Is there a need to beat to death, or charge 50,000 volts through another’s body, fire 41 shots at an unarmed man, stick a wooden stick up a man’s rectum, or even keep a man from having a fair trial. Is the system treating these cases fairly or just pushing them to the wayside? Why are so many cases that are reported regarding police brutality are directed towards minorities groups? So little is being done to prevent this from happening. Justice has to be served. The “Code of Silence” needs to be broken. Cops need to be put behind bars. The only way to clean up the city or community is to clean up all the dirty cops. Police brutality is a cruel, inhumane injustice that can be prohibited. No more people need to be afraid or be worried about being intimidated by police, about coming forth with information. If we work together as group things can be accomplished. My thoughts on police brutality and corruption is that something has to be done somehow things have to be changed. Someone has to police the police. There is definitely too much power in the system when you can beat a man senseless, shoot an unarmed man 41 times, or have a trial with so many loopholes and fabricated confessions, It’s ridiculous. Nothing is being done; cops get acquitted and even get promoted. The injustices are not only being done to the victims but also to us as a community for not getting involved and trying to stop it from happening. We the people have to become the “Voice of the Voiceless” for the lives that have been already taken (Fact Sheet on Mumia Abu-Jamal 2) How is that 6 cops in New York can run a drug traffic business right out their precinct and no one notices anything? I’m not just trying to say police brutality is directed towards just minorities. Mostly blacks and Latinos, but it is statistics that show it. Why is that? Is there such an extreme prejudice among law officers, especially in the bigger cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Los Angles. In every case used, there were practically any witnesses, and when there were some they changed there stories to fit police reports. Police brutality is becoming a bigger issue. It should have stopped with the Rodney King incident, but it hasn’t, it has only gotten worse. The cops have just found newer ways to hurt people. Not enough justice is being done to the cops who inflict their wounds among their victims. Was it really necessary for Diallo to be shot 41 times? Did the cops want to make sure he was really dead? What kind of sick frame of mind do you have to have to stick a wooden stick up a man’s rectum so far, that is ruptures his intestines and then shove it down his mouth? What kind of a trial is fair where there is a biased judge, evidence withheld, changed statements, and fabricated confessions? This is some society where we live in, in most of the cases the police get off and end up looking like the hero amongst their peers. Don’t get me wrong I don’t hate every cop out there as long as they’re doing their job right and using legal procedures. It’s the dirty cops that I can’t stand. The ones that harass, lie, beat people senseless, and kill the innocent and unarmed. The ones who don’t get punished for the cruel and inhumane acts that they force upon their victims, but instead get 10-30 days suspension and then get assigned to desk duty. Not enough is being done; enough will never be done if the city stays quiet, and ignorant to what goes on around them. Only way to stop it is to get involved, and be informed. One of these stories could be a friend, family member, or even you. The more closer to home, the more you’re likely to do something about it. I’m not a fascist, a radical or even in an anti-cop movement, but simply someone who reads the facts and tells you how I see them. Police Brutality and Corruption can be prevented, but you have to do something. If you don’t who will? Bibliography: Works Cited Abner Louima’s Story. [online] available http://www.taggin.com/webway.htm February 27, 2000. Amnesty International Report. “United States of America Police Brutality and Excessive Force in the New York City Police Department”. [online] available http://www.amnesty.it/Ailibtop/1996/AMR/25103696.htm. Pg 1-50 June 1996. Baez Anthony Foundation, National Lawyers Guild, October 22 Coalition. Stolen Lives Killed by Law Enforcement. New York: Harper, 1999. Chronology of the Louima Police Torture Case. [online] available http://www.courttv.com/national/louima/chronology.html/biographies. February 22, 2000. Cop Crimes. What Can We Do [online] available http://www.copcrimes.com/action.htm. February 26, 2000. Fact Sheet on Mumia Abu-Jamal. [online] Available http://www.iacenter.org/majfact.htm. February 22, 2000. Handbook of Policing the Police. California: Greenhaven Press, 1995. Leibovich, Lori. “Rethinking Rodney King” March 13, 1998. [online] Available http://www.salon.com/news/1998/03/13news.html. February 29, 2000. Refuse and Resist. Who is Mumia Abu-Jamal. [online] Available http://mojo.calyx.net~refuse/mumia/051697brochure.html. February 22, 2000. Robinson, Bryan. “Diallo Officers Self-Defense Case Hinges onLight and Autupsy Evidence. [online] Available -http://www.courttv.com/diallo/012800_background_ctv.htm. February 22, 2000. Rockwell, Robert. Police Brutality: More than A Few Bad Apples [online] Available http://mojo.calyxnet/~refuse/ndp/082497rockwell.html. February 26, 2000. Taylor, Stuart Jr. “Guitly and Framed” [online] Available http://www.courttv.com/casefiles/mumia/guilty.html. October 25, 1999. Works Cited Abner Louima’s Story. [online] available http://www.taggin.com/webway.htm February 27, 2000. Amnesty International Report. “United States of America Police Brutality and Excessive Force in the New York City Police Department”. [online] available http://www.amnesty.it/Ailibtop/1996/AMR/25103696.htm. Pg 1-50 June 1996. Baez Anthony Foundation, National Lawyers Guild, October 22 Coalition. Stolen Lives Killed by Law Enforcement. New York: Harper, 1999. Chronology of the Louima Police Torture Case. [online] available http://www.courttv.com/national/louima/chronology.html/biographies. February 22, 2000. Cop Crimes. What Can We Do [online] available http://www.copcrimes.com/action.htm. February 26, 2000. Fact Sheet on Mumia Abu-Jamal. [online] Available http://www.iacenter.org/majfact.htm. February 22, 2000. Handbook of Policing the Police. California: Greenhaven Press, 1995. Leibovich, Lori. “Rethinking Rodney King” March 13, 1998. [online] Available http://www.salon.com/news/1998/03/13news.html. February 29, 2000. Refuse and Resist. Who is Mumia Abu-Jamal. [online] Available http://mojo.calyx.net~refuse/mumia/051697brochure.html. February 22, 2000. Robinson, Bryan. “Diallo Officers Self-Defense Case Hinges onLight and Autupsy Evidence. [online] Available -http://www.courttv.com/diallo/012800_background_ctv.htm. February 22, 2000. Rockwell, Robert. Police Brutality: More than A Few Bad Apples [online] Available http://mojo.calyxnet/~refuse/ndp/082497rockwell.html. February 26, 2000. Taylor, Stuart Jr. “Guitly and Framed” [online] Available http://www.courttv.com/casefiles/mumia/guilty.html. October 25, 1999.

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