pine Gaul. He was also given control of a large army, which he used to subjugate Gaul. He gained enormous political strength from the Gallic Wars, which lasted from 58 to 51 BC. Although Caesar's daughter, Julia, married Pompey in 59, strain, encouraged by Crassus, developed between the two men. The "Triumvirate" was renegotiated at Luca in 56, but the death of Julia in 54 and Crassus in 53 and the phenomenal success of Caesar in Gaul eventually destroyed Caesar's relationship with Pompey. In 50 Pompey joined opponents of Caesar's bid for a second consulate. Caesar's offers of compromise were rejected by the Senate, and on Jan. 10, 49 BC, Caesar precipitated civil war by leading his army across the Rubicon into Italy proper. Caesar's veteran army soon overran Italy, forcing the unprepared Pompey to withdraw to Greece. In August 49 a lightning campaign secured Spain, and Caesar then crossed to Greece. At Dyrrhachium he suffered a loss, but his hardened veterans totally defeated Pompey's superior numbers at Pharsalus on Aug. 9, 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered. Following him there, Caesar became involved in the civil war between Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII. He made Cleopatra his mistress as well as queen of Egypt. In 47 BC Caesar went to Anatolia, where he defeated Pompey's ally Pharnaces, king of Bosporus, at Zela; this victory occasioned Caesar's famous boast Veni, vidi, vici ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). He returned to Rome, but in December 47 he crossed to North Africa to meet a new threat from the Pompeian forces. After victory at Thapsus, he returned home to an unprecedented quadruple triumph in 46 BC. Pompey's sons, however, organized new resistance in Spain. Caesar's victory over them at Munda, on Mar. 17, 45, was the hardest of all. Caesar was now showered with political powers and honors. He was appointed dictator , then dictator for 10 years , and finally dictator for life. He was also elected consul...
