Data Bases • Custom Term Papers • Free Term Papers • Free Research Papers • Free Essays • Free Book Reports • Plagiarism? Links • Top 100 Term Paper Sites • Top 25 Essay Sites • Top 50 Essay Sites • Search 97,000 Papers @ DirectEssays.com • Search 101,000 Papers @ ExampleEssays.com • Search 90,000 Papers @ MegaEssays.com Free Essays • Term Paper Sites • Chuck III's Free Essays • Free College Essays • TermPaperSites.com • My Term Papers • Get Free Essays • Essay World • Planet Papers	Search Lots of Essays Back to Subjects - Miscellaneous Biomedical technology Biomedical technology For the biotechnology industry, the future is now. Biotech companies are producing new and improved drugs, mapping the genome, and creating artificial organs and body parts. The advent of these new products will increase the quality of life for those who have access to them. Advancements in the biotechnology field have received a lot attention by the press and publications. They have given the impression that it is almost imperative to learn about this fairly new field of study. The purpose of this document is to learn about the new and exciting developments in the biotech industry. Besides lives being effected, the companies and the markets in which they reside will be as well. It’s vitally important to learn about the new technologies since there is a very good chance that million’s of others, and mostly likely yours truly will ingest a new drug, or have a new procedure preformed. The field of biotechnology is absolutely huge. There is the medical area and agriculture area of development. The agriculture area concentrates on developing hybrid crops and manipulating genes so that the plants natural defenses activate. Although this is interesting and has an effect on our lives, I have chosen to concentrate on the medical aspect of biotechnology. I have also decided not to comment on the ethics of the new developments, since I believe that the reader should decide for oneself. More specifically, the concentration will be on the Human Genome Project, artificial organs, and companies that are involved in the biotech industry. There were many contributors to modern biotechnology but there are only a few that stand out. Louis Pasteur’s work became the foundation microbiology and modern medicine. His biggest discovery was that germs cause most infectious diseases. (L’Explorateur) After this discovery he changed hospital practices to minimize the spread of germs. He discovered that a weakened form of a microbe could be used as an immunization. Also he discovered that the size of the microbes that carried the disease rabies was so small that it cannot be seen by a microscope, thus discovering viruses. (L’Explorateur) Pasteur is most well know for developing pasteurization, the process of heating foods so that the diseases in it are destroyed. Another influential scientist was Gregor Mendel, he described how traits were inherited, which has become one of the most important discoveries in the history of science. (Amgen) This discovery led to another discovery by Francis Crick and James Watson, the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. (NHGRI) DNA is the fundamental genetic structure, which defines virtually every living thing. The discovery of DNA then led to the direct manipulation on genes. The biotechnological era began slowly in the 70’s when universities first developed techniques for manipulating and inserting genes into bacteria. One of the first instances of manipulating genes was used in solving the insulin problem. People with diabetes can’t produce their own insulin; thus they rely on an outside source to regulate the blood sugar levels. At first insulin from cows this was the outside source, which worked well, but health concerns where taken into consideration so another option was desirable. The solution was a synthetic version of the human insulin gene, which was constructed in 1978 by Herbert Boyer. (Amgen) Insulin was created by isolating the sequence of DNA and inserting it into a plasmid which was the carrier into bacteria cells, then bacteria produced the insulin. This technique lead to more successful application, which we use today. Biotechnology is a precise way to find good traits and incorporate them into certain organisms. (whybiotech) Biotechnology is, by definition, any technology that relies on living organisms or biological systems. But this is not what most people mean when they refer to biotechnology. Genetic engineering is what most people are referring to. Genetic engineering is the manipulating of genes. Today we manipulate genes in plants to make then better tasting, bigger, and more resistant to disease, in animals to protect humans from adverse effects and for future use on them. And now experiments in humans have begun and are in the early stages. Another use of gene manipulation occurs in the pharmaceutical business, they manipulate proteins so that synthesized drugs can be created. The National Human Genome Institute defines recombinant DNA to be a variety of techniques that molecular biologists use to manipulate DNA molecules to study the expression of a gene. The word recombinant DNA is also another term commonly used to describe biotechnology. The difference is that recombinant DNA refers to the transfer of a gene to another organism. In order for this to occur the gene must be removed from a cell and then recombined with in another cell. Usually it’s removed from a human and then recombined into another organism, such as bacteria because there aren’t enough proteins under controlled conditions. The National Institute of Health and United States Department of Energy joined forces in 1988 to create the Human Genome Project. “The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international research program designed to construct detailed genetic and physical maps of the human genome, to determine the complete nucleotide sequence of human DNA, to localize the estimated 50,000-100,000 genes within the human genome, and to perform similar analyses on the genomes of several other organisms used extensively in research laboratories as model systems.” (NHGRI) In layman’s terms they are gathering information about all the chromosomes, such as the structure, location and function it performs. Once all 24 chromosomes are mapped, new technologies will result allowing biotechnology companies to produce a plethora of new drugs and engineered products. The first research plan set goals for the five years. It was supposed to be a fifteen-year project but because of the progress made, a new plan was created. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique, which copies of a region of DNA, in order to produce enough DNA to be manipulated. This technique can be used to identify disease-causing microbes. (Kimball) Microarray technology, is a new microchip technology, it is used to determine which genes are expressed in a particular cell. (Kimball) A microarray is actually a slide on microscope where DNA molecules are placed; these molecules contain genes. RNA is the “working copies” of genes within cells; this indicated which genes are being used. The RNA is then dyed so they can be seen, then added to the DNA on the microarray. The DNA structure has a important feature called base pairing. Watson and Crick discovered this when he found out that the percentage of adenine in DNA usually equals the percentage of thymine. (Kimball) And the percentage of guanine equals the percentage of cytosine. (Kimball) An X-ray showed how adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine are linked. The two chains of a DNA polymer link them and they are arranged like a spiral. Because of this, RNA sticks to the gene it came from; RNA that has not bonded with any base pairs is removed. After this, scientists look at the microarray under a microscope and to see which RNA is attached to the DNA. Since they know what each gene spot represents, it can be determined which genes are turned into cells. Because this technique determines which genes are turned on or off, disease causing genes are discovered. Scientists are developing artificial organs, growing skin and other many of parts of the body in laboratories. Actually there are twenty-three major organs which scientists are trying to either find synthetic or bio-engineered replacements for. Blood is important because there is usually always a shortage of it. Because of this blood substitutes are currently undergoing clinical trials. They are better known as oxygen-carrying compounds since this a major function of blood. Artificial blood comes in two basic forms. One is made from hemoglobin, the natural substance that carries oxygen and the second are perfluorocarbons. (NOVA) Perfluorocarbons are carbon-based synthetic compounds that also can carry oxygen. The function of the kidney is to filter out unneeded urea, salt, sugar and water. Dialysis machines do this for someone who has a kidney, which is not operating properly. But the dialysis machine does not recycle the good materials in the body. David Humes, a nephrologist at the University of Michigan has developed an artificial kidney that recycles, by absorption through the kidney cells, the good materials back into the blood. (NOVA) It has been tested on dogs and is expected to be tested on humans sometime in the near future. Older people frequently fall and break their hip; it is a painful and often requires sugary. The hip, like many of the bones in the body, has 2 main part, the ball and the socket. The bone is made of metal with a ceramic head; the head is the top of the bone, which is shaped like a ball. When there is a chance for the bone to heal properly a fabricated mesh is placed around the broken area to promote growth. Another problem plaguing older people is the lose of eyesight. MIT Researchers are developing an eye implant that could restore vision to patients that have retinal disease. Macular degeneration is an age-related condition is the leading cause of blindness. (NOVA) The retinal implant will have two silicon microchips. One microchip provides solar power and the other will process the image taken by a small camera attached on glasses worn by the patient. The image processing chip decodes the picture information and sends electric pulses to the retina's ganglion cells, which take the visual signals to the brain. (NOVA) The heart is probably the most common and popular organ in the body. It’s obviously the most import since it keeps us alive by pumping blood throughout the whole body. It pumps 55 million gallons of blood and beats more than 2.5 billion times during an average lifetime. Currently there are devices called left ventricular assist devices are implanted beside the patient's heart. (NOVA) These take over pumping for the left ventricle of the heart. Human trials will begin on a new artificial heart shortly. Researchers hope to bioengineer a human heart within ten years, possibly doing away with mechanical devices altogether. Celera Genomics a private firm and the Human Genome Project are both working for the same goal, to map the 3.1 billion DNA subunits in the human genome. Dr. Francis Collins the head of the Human Genome Project and Dr. Craig Venter head of Celera both denied that they are racing to complete the human genome. A Celera spokesman has been said that they would make their finding public and double check the results. But the Chicago Tribune reports that Celera Genomics could “reap huge profits” from the intellectual property of the gene sequencing and the machines it used to sequence. The huge profits will come from selling the genome databases to pharmaceutical and biotech companies. Immunex Corporation has been the first large company to purchase rights to the database. (Gillis, 6/28) One thing that may stop the growth of Celera and companies like it is that fact that the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office is going to set new guidelines relating to the biotech industry. This is because they don’t want selling genes to companies when they do not know what these genes do. But fully characterized genes, such as the one that predisposes women to breast cancer, will be patentable. (Pollack, 6/69) Celera’s stock currently has a 52-week low of 20-¾ and 52-week high of 276. It had a 2 for 1 spit on February 22, 2000 before the split the stock price was 315.8125 per share. Currently it is a round 62-½ pre share . If all goes well with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office share price should be going up in the near future. Human Genome Science believes that it has mapped the genes responsible for producing proteins in the body. They also believe that their, “genomics-based drugs will usher in a new generation of healthcare products.” Which will spell profits for this company. Human Genome’s stock has a 52-week high/low of 116.37 - 21.25. It has two 2 for 1 stock splits, the first occurred on January 31, 2000, before the market opened. Before the split the stock was priced at 191.125. The second stock split occurred on October 2, 2000, this price before splitting was 165. Currently the stock is priced around 74-¼. And on November 14, 2000, Prudential upgraded GHSI from accumulate to a strong buy. Amgen is a global biotechnology company that develops and manufactures human therapeutics. The products they produce are based on molecular and cellular biology. Amgen’s stock has been performing well, the 52-week low/high being, 42-5/8 – 80-7/16, respectively. With a price/earnings ratio of 60.16 and earning per share of 1.12 the stock is a strong buy. The stock has split 5 times since August 13, 1990, there were 4, 2 for 1’s and one 3 for 1 splits. There are hardly any profits and the price per share is high, this is a similar situation when compared to the internet stocks. But the payoff isn’t in the near future, “We will be sorting through the genome for literally decades”, says Craig Venter, president of Celera Genomics. Jonas Alsenas, a portfolio manager says, “The vast majority of new biotech companies don’t have anything new and won’t survive.” There is a lot of risk associated with investing the biotech industry. “Wait until this latest euphoria dies down…Zero in on the few genomics firms that have a shot at becoming the next Amgen” advises Robert Langreth of Forbes. That is obviously the best way to make money since the stock prices too high to buy now. There are three potential areas one can invest in when the time is right. Pharmaceutical companies such as Amgen or Human Genome Sciences are using gene databases to create new drugs. Both companies are bringing in profits, which is one step head on the competition. Data Miners are the companies that are mapping the genome. (Forbes) A company like Celera sells genome information to pharmaceutical companies. But it has been noted that there is not one company in existence that has made a consistent profit in doing so. There are also companies known as toolmakers, they design, build, and market devices to decode the genome. The devices can be microchips or software to read the genetic code. (Forbes) Lion Bioscience is only three and a half months old and investors and talking about it being the leader biotech software. “The Future is Now”, that’s what virtually every biotech company has plastered or implied on their respective web site. The vast improvements in technology has these companies and society excited. The old technologies are not going to disappear any time soon, the new ones will be better. So it’s just a matter of time until full implementation takes place. When it does, the biotech market will change, profits will be made and those who have money invested will also make a healthy profit. Bibliography: Bibliography “Amgen Home Page.” Amgen Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA. (13 Nov. 2000). “Decoding Gene Stocks”. Forbes. 10/30/2000, Vol. 166 Issue 12, p380, 3p 1 chart, 1 c Gillis, Justin. “Software Deal Made By Celera.” Washington Post. 9 Nov. 2000. (13 Nov. 2000). “Home - Council for Biotechnology Information”. Council for Biotechnology Information. (15 Nov. 2000). “Kimball’s Biology Pages”. Kimball’s Biology Pages. (26 Nov. 2000 ). “Louis Pasteur” L’Explorateur Culturel. (15 Nov. 2000) Mooney, David, J. and Mikos, Antonios, G., “Growing New Organs.” Scientific American. April 1999. (13 Nov. 2000). “National Human Genome Research Institute. (NHGRI)” National Human Genome Research Institute. (11 Nov. 2000). “NOVA Online | Electric Heart.” PBS. (13 Nov. 2000). Recer, Paul. “DNA Study Traces European Ancestors.” AP Science Writer Yahoo. 9 Nov. 2000. (13 Nov. 2000). “TIGR Databases.” The Institute for Genomic Research. Rockville, MD. (13 Nov. 2000). Word Count: 2561
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