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The transition from the socialist system to democracy gave the Gypsies of Czechoslovakia a chance to participate in the political process, to represent their interests and end their ethnic marginilization. Though, due to historical circumstances dating back before communism this has been a tough task for the Gypsies and other minorities. The emergence of democracy and a free market economy in former Czechoslovakia has created many social problems for the Gypsies. There has been an increase of prejudice and violent attacks against the Gypsies, as well as widespread unemployment for the majority of unskilled, untrained Gypsies. The causes of the prejudice and conflicts involving Gypsies are attributed to both the social history of Eastern Europe from the interwar years as well as the nature of communist and postcommunist societies. The transition to a democratic form of government has brought about both positive and negative aspects for the Gypsies; in order to fully understand the current social position of this minority group it is imperative to analyze the history of the "Gypsy problem" in the twentieth century. The history of the Gypsies in Eastern Europe and former Czechoslovakia has created many of the social problems this large minority face today. The Gypsies migrated to Eastern and Western Europe in the thirteenth century from northern India and Pakistan. The Gypsies attracted attention from the moment they entered into Europe because of their strange looks and lifestyle. The gypsies led a nomadic lifestyle traveling from place to place never establishing an area of permanent residence. They made a living by telling fortunes, begging, horse trading, and thieving. Their nomadic life-style was conducive to their activities because the Gypsies never established ties to the community and were gone before they had arrived. As the Gypsies continued to travel they soon began to develop a bad reputation that preceded their arrival in new areas. As the Gypsies arrived in the Czech areas within the Holy Roman Empire they were regarded as an undesirable element in society. Over the next few hundred years the Gypsies were persecuted and efforts were made to destroy the Gypsy culture in the area of former Czechoslovakia. "In the seventeenth century, many Gypsies were hanged from trees along the border to discourage others from entering the country (Crowe and Kolsti 94)." Persecution of the Gypsies ended in the eighteenth century ended when the rulers of the Hapsburg Empire tried to integrate them into the peasantry and make them a positive aspect of society. They were forced to abandon their nomadic lifestyle and many of their horses were shot. The Gypsies were not allowed to speak their native tongue, which is Romani, and their children were instructed in the Christian religion. While many of these policies worked they were not regularly enforced and the Gypsies soon returned to their old lifestyle. Throughout the nineteenth century the Gypsies resisted continuing efforts at assimilation and were able to maintain their cultural identity. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the policy toward the Gypsy culture and people changed dramatically. The formation of the Czechoslovak republic helped the Gypsies and other minorities to celebrate their culture and identity. In 1921, they were regarded as a separate nationality and efforts were made by the new government to guarantee equality for all minorities. The last segment of the six-part Czechoslovakian constitution was a Bill of Rights for national minorities, which guaranteed all 'nationals of the Czechoslovak Republic…absolute equality in the eye of the law, [to] enjoy the same civil and political rights without distinction of race, language, or religion.' All national minorities were granted full economic and employment rights (Crowe 43-44) At this time there were believed to be around 31,000 Gypsies the majority of which were living in the Slovakia. While the Gypsies did not make up a large percentage of the thirteen million people living in the Czechoslovak Republic, they did constitute the countries largest minority population. One specific area of improvement for the Gypsies during this time was in education. The formation of Gypsy schools in areas of Czechoslovakia were important for the education of young Gypsies, and as cultural centers for Gypsy populations living in those specific areas. The schools taught the children in their native tongue and taught them about their culture and community. While the Gypsies were able to make considerable advances both culturally and socially during this time, these achievements soon disappeared. The collapse of the republic in 1938 and the invasion of the area the following year by Hitler and the Nazi's brought about serious changes for the Gypsies. In a matter of a year the Gypsies went from being regarded as equals within Czech society to outcasts under Hitler. In 1939, all of Czechoslovakia was taken over by the Nazi's and in the following years the entire Gypsy population of the Czech territory were killed at Auschwitz. Close to 8,000 Gypsies died in the Holocaust as a result of Hitler's ethnic cleansing. Gypsies in Slovakia were much more fortunate and many Czech Gypsies were able to escape the purges by migrating to Slovakia. Part of the reason why Slovakia received mild treatment compared to that of the Czech area was that Hitler wanted Slovakia to be a "propaganda showpiece in Southeastern Europe (Crowe 51)." Another reason for the mild treatment was Slovakia's contribution to the German war effort. Most of civil society during this time remained semi-autonomous, and as a result most of the Gypsies in Slovakia were spared their lives. The liberation of Czechoslovakia by the defeat of the Germans was a welcome change throughout the entire region. Only a handful of Gypsy families survived the Nazi occupation of Czech areas, and as a result large numbers of Slovak gypsies migrated into the now unoccupied areas of the Czech lands. The new communist led government encouraged Gypsies to enter the labor market and settle in urban areas of Czechoslovakia. While the new communist government welcomed the Gypsies into society their lifestyle and cultural habits were distinctly different and inhibited them from becoming assimilated into Czech society. The emergence of Socialism in the Czech lands brought new social problems for the Gypsies. Although the Communist led National Front originally supported the Gypsies, it became clear that in the new state there was no place for the Gypsies. The same remained true after the communist takeover in 1948 and the new government openly advanced the idea that the Gypsy culture was undesirable in Czechoslovakia. "It decided to eliminate the primitive old Gypsy way of life with all its bad habits (Crowe and Kolsti 97)." The new communist government wanted to destroy their social life and culture, and assimilate them into society. The first goal of the communist government was to eliminate the nomadic lifestyle of the Gypsies. In 1958, the government passed a law that forced Gypsies to establish permanent residence. The problem with the new law was that it forced them to give comprehensive assistance to the Gypsies. In order for the Gypsies to be able to assimilate into society, they would have to be supplied with housing, employment, and suitable education to turn them into hard working citizens. While the law did not directly mention them in it, it was "directed at persons who wander from village to village avoiding honest work and living in a disgraceful manner, even when they have permits to reside (Crowe and Kolsti 98)." The main goal of the socialist government in regard to the Gypsy population was supported by their main philosophy of the socialist state. Under Socialism the government wanted to create an environment where everybody was working for the good of the state. "Although there were significant variations in the East European communist states' approaches to the Roma, the goal was everywhere to transform them into useful members of those societies (Barany 326)." While the goals of the government was to raise the economic, social, and cultural levels of the Gypsies, the steps taken in 1958 failed miserably. Local governments did not regularly keep track of the movements of the Gypsies, or enforce penalties of those that did travel. Another problem was arising for the government with regard to the Gypsy population and that was the formation of Gypsy settlements outside cities. When Gypsies returned from Czech lands with savings, they built houses (without first obtaining permits) in settlements which usually lacked electricity, adequate, sanitation, and sometimes even potable water. Thus many new houses and shanties, despite official prohibitions against them, were added to settlements already designated for demolition ( Crowe and Kolsti 99). It is apparent that the policies implemented by the communist led government did not sufficiently eliminate the Gypsy population in Czechoslovakia, and in many ways these policies made the problem worse. In 1965, the government created the National Council for Questions of the Gypsy Population. This council was designed to create and enforce full employment of Gypsies, destroy their settlements, and resettle them in different areas. During this time the council was able to create jobs for the Gypsies in "menial occupations." Gypsies got jobs as street cleaners, garbage collectors, and road repairman. Also, the council worked hard on destroying the Gypsy settlements and resettling them in different more suitable parts of the area. Close to 39% of the entire Gypsy population in Slovakia were relocated and the government placed restrictions of "free migration." "Only those Gypsies the Gypsies included in the planned resettlement were permitted to move ( Crowe and Kolsti 100)." The communist government of Czechoslovakia tried to assimilate the Gypsies through restrictions on travel, coercive settlement, and mandatory employment and education policies. During this time the Gypsies were forced to assimilate and lost their cultural heritage in the process. Even though the government was strict with the Gypsies during this time, many Gypsies benefited from communist policies. The government imposed mandatory schooling for the Gypsy children, and the education level of the Gypsies rose considerably. While the population remained at the bottom of "scholastic achievement, they became almost entirely literate. Furthermore, the inconsistently pursued policy of positive discrimination, through which authorities selected "promising" Romani youth for higher education, created a miniscule Gypsy middle class that was to play a crucial role once democratization permitted ethnic mobilization (Barany 146). While the communist government failed to alleviate the problems of the Gypsies, there were policies implemented that benefited the Gypsy population in many ways. Employment policies helped to raise the standard of living, and raise the Gypsies awareness of their own self worth. Universal health care also benefited the Gypsies by raising their life expectancy. While the Gypsies faced prejudice during communism and many of the policies implemented against them destroyed their cultural heritage, the gains that were made under the socialist system were significant in improving the lifestyle of this minority. The collapse of Communism in 1989 has had significant impacts on the Gypsy populations all over Eastern Europe. The transition from socialism was expected to be a positive step in the treatment of the Gypsies. They could now voice their political opinions and become politically active if they so chose. The Gypsies would hopefully no longer be marginalized by the government and people of Czechoslovakia. Unfortunately, the transition to a democratic form of government has produced significant problems for the Gypsies that were not even felt under communism. Today, the Gypsies face widespread economic problems, and their ethnic marginilization continues. The transition from a communist system of government to a democratic one, and the evolution from a centrally planned economy to a free market and performance oriented one has brought about severe poverty for the Gypsies. The emergence of a free market economy has created labor competition in every sector of the economy. Under the new system labor is expendable and those with no skills or weak employment records are simply not hired for jobs. The Gypsies have been especially hard hit by this transition because the large majority of their population are unskilled and untrained. "In the postcommunist period, the Roma(Gypsies) tend to be fired first and hired last, both because of these objective circumstances and because of remaining prejudice against them (Barany 145)." Unemployment levels among the Gypsy population are around 70 - 80 percent of the population. Another problem with the collapse of the socialist system is that social programs are no longer guaranteed, which creates a huge problem for the Gypsies. Because of the scarcity of these social programs, the Gypsies have turned to crime, prostitution, and begging. The Gypsies economic situation is only expected to get worse in the future. The number of Gypsy children attending school since the collapse of communism has dropped dramatically. States no longer have the resources to create schools for Gypsy children and as a result the Gypsies are experiencing a shrinking middle class. "The shrinking Romani presence in higher education is also troubling, for it stifles the growth of the nascent Gypsy middle class and robs the Romani community of role models (Barany 146)." The increase in unemployment and decrease in education has led to rising levels of crime in Czechoslovakia. From 1989-1993 crime in Czechoslovakia rose 30 percent and it was reported that the Gypsies were responsible for 20 percent of all crime committed. This is a rather large number considering that the Gypsy population only makes up one tenth of the population in Czechoslovakia. The Velvet Divorce in January created more problems for the Gypsies of the Czech lands. The separation of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia created many inequalities among the Gypsies of their prospective areas. Many Gypsies migrated from Slovakia to the Czech Republic after the divorce because of the success of the economy and treatment of the Gypsies. But, the high increase of immigrants into the newly formed Czech Republic caused the government to enforce strict citizenship laws that do not protect the Gypsies that are not Czech citizens. This has led to widespread discrimination even within the Gypsy population. Another problem that the Gypsies have faced in the transition to democracy is the emergence of extreme nationalism that has made the Gypsies targets of violence. "Across the region, 'skinheads' and ordinary citizens have killed dozens of Roma and burned down hundreds of their dwellings, in many cases under the eyes of indifferent police authorities(Barany 146.)" The creation of democratic rights such as freedom of speech, and political activism have led to the discrimination of Gypsies in former Czechoslovakia. The Gypsies have always been looked down upon by society in Eastern Europe, but the emergence of democracy has allowed attacks on the Gypsies. The overall public's view of the Gypsies is not encouraging either. A recent public opinion poll indicated that the Gypsies are the most disliked of all minorities in Eastern Europe. In Czechoslovakia a poll disclosed that 87% of the population considered the lifestyle and behavior of the Gypsies to be "provocative." A recent report regarding the human rights of the Czech Republic's Gypsy population reported: …the authorities like the majority of the population, tend to regard the gypsy community as a whole as deviant and criminally inclined to tolerate, and sometimes even encourage, expressions of hostility toward them(Gheorghe 831). One of the main problems that the Gypsies are facing regarding prejudice against them is that local officials are usually uneducated and "harbor" the most prejudice. Another cause of the high amount of prejudice against the Gypsies of former Czechoslovakia is their portrayal in the media. In both newspapers and television Gypsies are portrayed in a very negaitve way. In a 1993 report presented to the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe found that in the Czech Republic the media presented a very negative picture of the Roma. One positive aspect of the transition to democracy for the Gypsies has been their ability to become politically active within their communities. After the collapse of communism the Gypsies could take advantage of the opportunity to participate in politics through the formation of political parties. Soon after the collapse of communism many Gypsy political parties were established, but were not well led and quickly fell apart. In 1990, the Romani Civic Initiative was established and in the Czechoslovak elections won five seats in the federal and national parliaments. However, in the elections since then the Gypsies have been unable to win a single seat. In Slovakia the few numbers of political parties has not aided them in achieving benefits for their population. "Relative cohesiveness among the Slovak Roma has not yielded benefits for the collective, mainly because the Slovak government has neglected the Roma and their problems."(Barany 320) A reason the Gypsies have had difficulty establishing themselves in government is because the majority of the Gypsy population is uneducated. These political parties lack quality leadership to accomplish the goals of their people. The lack of education that the Gypsies had under the socialist system and even more so now is prohibiting the Gypsies from becoming politically involved in the transition to democracy. There is one positive aspect of the transition to democracy for both the Czech Republic and the Slovak Gypsies. This is the formation if international organizations that are looking out for rights and well being for Gypsies in all of Eastern Europe. While some organizations existed before the collapse of communism their ability to change communist policy was limited. Since the collapse organizations like the European Union, United Nations, and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe have actively been working to improve the rights of the Gypsies in Eastern Europe. The EU and OSCE have publicized the living conditions of the Gypsies and have denied membership into their organizations if state policy doesn't change. "For instance, one of the several reasons Slovakia was not included in the first group of states slated for NATO membership was its dismal treatment of ethnic minorities." (Barany 154) Recently the Czech Republic changed its citizenship law that discriminated against the Gypsies after the EU and other organizations called for them to alter it. Even though the Gypsies have had troubles getting politically motivated there are organizations out there that are looking after their best interests. The fall of communism and the transition to democracy has proved difficult for the Gypsies of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. State policies have increased the gap between the Gypsies and the majority. Gypsies are still living in poverty and there hasn't been any significant changes in education and the training of unskilled Gypsies. The Gypsies have few people to lead them, and the ones that do have not succeeded in improving living conditions. In order for the Gypsies to become equal the state must enforce penalties against discrimination, and institute programs that will allow the Gypsies to become self-sufficient. The governments of each country must make conscious efforts to educate and train the Gypsies. Efforts need to be made by the gypsies as well. It is important for the Gypsies to become politically active and with the help of international organizations change state policy. The Gypsies have suffered ethnic discrimination for hundreds of years and it is important now for everyone to become socially accepting of minorities. Bibliography: Footnotes Word Count: 3247
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