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xdhh Bolivia is a country near the center of South America. It lacks a seacoast and has great natural barriers to transportation. In western Bolivia, the majestic, snow-capped Andes Mountains surround a high, dry plateau. A vast lowland plain spreads over the north and east. Tropical rain forests thrive in the northern part of the plain, and grasslands and swamps sprawl across much of the east. Largely hilly country lies between the Andes Mountains and the lowland plain. Most Bolivians are of Indian or of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry. About half the country’s workers farm for a living. Most Bolivians are desperately poor, and many adults cannot read or write. Bolivia has two capitals. Sucre, where the Supreme Court meets, is the official capital. However, most government officers are in La Paz, the actual capital and Bolivia’s largest city. Bolivia is rich in natural resources and is a leading producer of tin. However, frequent wars, revolutions, and a series of unstable governments have hampered the country’s economic growth. As a result, Bolivia remains a developing country with one of the lowest standards of living in the Western Hemisphere. American Indians were the first people to live in what is now Bolivia. During the 1500’s, Spain conquered the Indians. The Spanish ruled the region until 1825, when Bolivia won it’s independence. The new country was named after Simon Bolivar. Bolivar, a Venezuelan general, helped Bolivia and several other countries win their freedom from Spain. Bolivia has had 16 constitutions since it became independent in 1825. Most of the constitutions called for a freely elected government. However, dictators have often ruled the country. Bolivia’s present Constitution dates from 1967. Under it, the people elect a president and the members of the national legislature, called Congress, to four-year terms. The president may not be elected in two terms in a row. The Supreme Court is Bolivia’s highest court. Congress appoints the court’s justices. Bolivia is divided into 9 departments for purposes of local government. The departments are divided into 94 provinces, which are further divided into 1,272 cantons. Appointed officials govern all the political units. In general, they have little independence from the national government. Bolivia has many political parties. Minors’ unions and the military have great influence on the nations politics. Married Bolivians who are at least 18 years of age may vote. Unmarried Bolivians must at least 21 years old to vote. Bolivia has a population of about 8 million. About half of the people live in rural areas. The rest live in cities and towns. About 977,000 people make their home in La Paz. American Indians have lived in what is now Bolivia for thousands of years. During the 1500’s, Spain began to colonize the area. Through the years, many Spaniards and Indians intermarried. Today, mestizos (people of white and Indian ancestry) make up about 30% of the population. About 60% of the people are of unmixed Indian ancestry. Most of the rest of the population are people of unmixed white ancestry. Bolivia had three official languages-Spanish and the Indian languages of Aymara and Quechua. About one-third of the people speak Spanish. Most Bolivians speak an Indian language. Aymara and Quechua are the most common Indian languages. Many Latin-American countries have long had strict class systems based on ancestry. In Bolivia, however, generations of intermarriage have made it difficult to find the classes according to ancestry. Large numbers of mestizos belong to all classes. Wealthy Bolivians, called the elite, form the nation’s smallest social class. The elite speak Spanish and live in modern city apartments or in elegant Spanish-style houses with patios. Most elite families have had their wealth for many generations, and some of them own large amounts of land. Bolivia’s middle class includes government officials and doctors, lawyers, and other professionals. The life of the middle class in Bolivia resembles that of the elite but is much less luxurious. Working-class Bolivians include peddlers, factory workers, and farmers who raise crops chiefly to sell. Many working-class Bolivians, known as cholos, follow a mixture of Spanish and Indian traditions. They speak Spanish and one or more Indian languages. The typical cholo house is made of adobe and has a tile or metal roof. In the cities, most cholos live in crowded neighborhoods called barrios. Poor farmers, called campesinos, make up Bolivia’s largest social class. Campesinos follow Indian customs and speak Indian languages. They farm small plots, and most of them raise barely enough food to live on. Many of the women weave textiles or make pottery to earn extra money. Most campesinos live in tiny adobe houses with thatch roofs. Most wealthy and middle-class Bolivians dress much like the people who live in the United States and Canada. Some cholos also wear Western-style clothing. However, many cholos and campesinos wear traditional costumes. Some costumes include striped ponchos for men and colorful shawls and full skirts for women. Many women also wear derby hats. Traditional foods in Bolivia potatoes, corn, and a grain called quinoa. Bolivians often cook chuno, a dried form of potato, in stews or porridges. Some other common dishes include corn-filled pies called humitas and meat turnovers called saltenas. Most poor Bolivians have an inadequate diet. Many of them chew the leaves of the coca plant to relieve hunger and fatigue. Coca leaves contain cocaine and other drugs. About 95 per cent of all Bolivians are baptized Roman Catholic. Most of them take part in church festivals, but few attend Mass regularly. In addition, many Catholics continue to honor traditional Indian gods and goddesses. Most other Bolivians still hold other various Indian religious beliefs. Colorful festivals play an important role in the life of the Bolivians. The festivals feature parades, feasts, and elaborate dances. The festival dancers wear brightly colored costumes and masks. Most festivals celebrate or honor Catholic saints or Indian gods and goddesses. Soccer is Bolivia’s favorite sport. In the large cities, professional teams play before huge crowds. Most Bolivians 15 years of age or older can read and write. Bolivia provides free elementary and high school education. Children from the ages of 6-13 must attend school. However, many drop out before the age of 13. An especially large number of campesino children leave school to help their families farm the land. Bolivia has 10 universities. The University of St. Francis Xavier in Sucre is one of the oldest universities in South America. It was founded in 1624. For thousands of years, the Indians of Bolivia have made fine jewelry, pottery, and colorful rugs and shawls. The Tiahuanaco Indians, who lived near Lake Titicaca, from about 100 to 1200 A.D., produced impressive statues and monuments. The Spanish colonists in Bolivia built many beautiful stone churches during the 1500’s and 1600’s. Indian craftworkers, hired by the Spanish, carved bold designs into the outside of the walls of the churches. During the 1900’s, social injustice and the everyday activities of the Indians provided the themes for many Bolivian writers and artists. For example, Augusto Cespedes examined the mistreatment of Indian tin miners in his novel Metal del Diablo (1946). Marina Nunez del Prado won fame for her sculptures depicting Indian life. Bolivia has four major land regions. They are (1) the Adrean Highlands, (2) the Yungas, (3) the Valles as a subregion of the Yungas. The Adrean Highlands cover much of western Bolivia. A high plateau called the Altiplano lies between two craggy ranges of the Andes Mountains. The western range forms part of Bolivia’s western border. The eastern range divides the Altiplano from the rest of the country. About 40 percent of Bolivia’s people live on the Altiplano, many of them in La Paz. Few trees grow on the Altiplano. The southern section is especially barren. The world’s highest navigable lake, Lake Titicaca, is partly in the northern Altiplano and is partly in Peru. The lake lies at an altitude of 12,507 feet (3,812 meters) above sea level. Small farms dot the land near Lake Titicaca. The Yungas make up a small region northeast of the Adrean Highlands. The region has steep hills and narrow gorges. Subtropical forests thrive on the hillsides. Few people lived in the Yungas. The Valles lie in south-central Bolivia. The region consists of gently sloping hills and broad valleys. Open grasslands and many farms cover the land. The Valles produce much of the nation’s food. The Oriente is a vast lowland plain that spreads across northern and eastern Bolivia. Tropical rain forests flourish in the north. Open grasslands, swamps, and shrubbery forests cover much of the rest of the Oriente. Many large farms lie near Santa Cruz. Most of the region has few inhabitants. Wide, sluggish rivers flow through the Oriente. After a heavy rainfall, numerous rivers overflow their banks and flood the surrounding area. Many of the rivers form part of the Amazon River System. The climate in Bolivia varies greatly from region to region. Bolivia lies south of the equator, so its seasons are opposite those of the northern hemisphere. In the Andes Mountains, snow covers the highest peaks the year round. The Altiplano has sparkling clear air and a cool, dry climate. The temperature averages 55 degrees F (13.1 degrees C) in January and 40 degrees F (22 degrees C) in July. The Yungas have a warm, humid climate. Heavy mists often surround the region’s highest hills. The climate in the Valles is like that of the Yungas, but is much less humid. The temperature in both the Yungas and the Valles regions averages about 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) in January and 52 degrees F (10.9 degrees C) in July. Most of the Oriente has a hot, humid climate. The daily temperature averages 75 degrees F (24 degrees C) the year round. However, the temperature drops suddenly when cool, dust-laden winds called the surazos blow northward across the Oriente during the winter months. The rainy season in most parts of Bolivia lasts from December through February. The Oriente receives the most rain. Light rain falls on the Altiplano, and droughts frequently trouble the region. Bolivia is a developing country. However, it has a wealth of natural resources that are not being fully used and which could provide for economic growth. These resources include plentiful minerals, pastureland, timber, and fertile soil. Service industries and agricultural account for most of Bolivia’s gross domestic product (GDP)-that is, the total value of all goods produced yearly. Most of Bolivia’s industries and businesses are privately owned. But the government controls petroleum production and other key industries. Service industries account for about 38 percent of Bolivia’s GDP and employ about 40 percent of the country’s workers. The service industries include businesses, government agencies, hospitals, and schools. Agriculture accounts for about 32 percent of Bolivia’s GDP and employs about 47 percent of all workers. Farmers on the Altiplano grow potatoes, wheat, and a grain called quinoa. They raise llamas and alpacas for their wool. The Yungas and the Valles regions yield bananas, beans, cacoa, coffee, and corn. Another important crop of the Yungas is coca, from which the drug cocaine is made. Bolivia is one of the world’s leading producers of coca. In the Oriente, farmers raise cattle and grow cotton, rice, and suger cane. Manufacturing accounts for about 17 percent of Bolivia’s GDP and employs about 7 percent of all workers. Bolivian factories refine tin, process foods, and make textiles and other products. The chief industrial centers are La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba. Mining accounts for about 13 percent of Bolivia’s GDP and employs about 3 percent of all workers. Tin is Bolivia’s most important mineral, but it is declining in significance. However, the nation still ranks among the world’s leading tin producers. The government controls most of the tin mines. Bolivia’s metal deposits lie high in the Andes Mountains. In addition to tin, these mountains contain antimony, copper, lead, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Orinte yields gold, petroleum, and natural gas. Petroleum supplies about 70 percent of the energy used in Bolivia. Most of the petroleum comes from the Oriente. Other important sources of energy include natural gas and hydroelectricity. Natural gas is Bolivia’s chief legal export. But authorities believe that the illegal export of coca brings in much more money. Bolivia also exports antimony, gold, silver, tin, tungsten, coffee, lumber, sugar, and rubber. Imports include heavy machinery, transportation equipment, and such consumer goods as clothing, food, and household items. Bolivia trades mainly with the United States, Argentina, and Western European countries. Bolivia’s rugged terrain and dense forests have made it difficult to build roads and railroad. The country has only about 800 miles (3,700 kilometers) of railroad track. Bolivia has an average of about 1 automobile for every 150 people. The nation has international airports at La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz. Bolivia publishes about 15 daily newspapers. The country has an average of about 1 radio for every 2 people and 1 television set for every 20 people. The telephone and telegraph systems link the major cities. American Indians lived in what is now Bolivia as long as 10, 000 years ago. About A.D. 100, a major Indian civilization developed in the Tiahuanaco region near Lake Titicaca. The Tiahuanaco Indians built gigantic monuments and carved statues out of stone. Their civilization declined rapidly during the 1200’s. by the late 1300’s, a warlike tribe called the Aymara controlled much of western Bolivia. The Inca Indians of Peru defeated the Aymara during the 1400’s and made Bolivia part of their huge empire. The Inca forced their religion, customs, and language, Quechua, on the Bolivian Indians. During the 1530’s, Spain conquered the Inca and made Bolivia a Spanish colony called Upper Peru or Charcas. Spanish colonists soon began to settle in Bolivia and establish large estates called haciendas. After silver was discovered in the mountains near Potosi in 1545, Spaniards poured into Bolivia by the thousands. Bolivia’s silver became an important source of wealth for Spain. The Spanish colonists frequently mistreated the Indians of Bolivia. They forced the Indians to work on the haciendas and in the silver mines. Many Indians died of mistreatment or of diseases brought by the Spaniards. Some Spaniards and Indians intermarried, producing the beginning of a mestizo population. From time to time, the Indians and mestizos rebelled against the Spanish. Most of the rebellions were quickly crushed. The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1807-08 by Napole�n's forces proved critical to the independence struggle in South America. The overthrow of the Bourbon Dynasty and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne tested the loyalty of the local elites in Upper Peru, who were suddenly confronted with several conflicting authorities. Most remained loyal to Spain. Taking a wait-and-see attitude, they supported the Junta Central (Central Junta) in Spain, a government in the name of the abdicated Ferdinand VII. Some liberals eagerly welcomed the reforms of colonial rule promised by Joseph Bonaparte. Others supported the claims of Carlota, Ferdinand's sister, who governed Brazil with her husband, Prince Regent John of Portugal. Finally, a number of radical criollos wanted independence for Upper Peru. This conflict of authority resulted in a local power struggle in Upper Peru between 1808 and 1810 and constituted the first phase of the efforts to achieve independence. In 1808 the president of the audiencia, Ram�n Garc�a Le�n de Pizarro, demanded affiliation with the Junta Central. The conservative judges of the audiencia were influenced, however, by their autocratic royalist philosophy and refused to recognize the authority of the junta because they saw it as a product of a popular rebellion. On May 25, 1809, tensions grew when radical criollos, also refusing to recognize the junta because they wanted independence, took to the streets. This revolt, one of the first in Latin America, was soon put down by the authorities. On July 16, 1809, Pedro Domingo Murillo led another revolt by criollos and mestizos (those of mixed European and Indian ancestry) in La Paz and proclaimed an independent state in Upper Peru in the name of Ferdinand VII. The loyalty to Ferdinand was a pretense used to legitimize the independence movement. By November 1809, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Potos� had joined Murillo. Although the revolt was put down by royalist forces sent to La Paz by the viceroy of Peru and to Chuquisaca by the viceroy of R�o de La Plata, Upper Peru was never again completely controlled by Spain. During the following seven years, Upper Peru became the battleground for forces of the independent Argentine Republic and royalist troops from Peru. Although the royalists repulsed four Argentine invasions, guerrillas controlled most of the countryside, where they formed six major republiquetas, or zones of insurrection. In these zones, local patriotism would eventually develop into the fight for independence. By 1817 Upper Peru was relatively quiet and under the control of Lima. After 1820 the Conservative Party criollos supported General Pedro Antonio de Ola�eta, a Charcas native, who refused to accept the measures by the Spanish Cortes (legislature) to conciliate the colonies after the Liberal Party revolution in Spain. Ola�eta, convinced that these measures threatened royal authority, refused to join the royalist forces or the rebel armies under the command of Sim�n Bol�var Palacio and Antonio Jos� de Sucre Alcal�. Ola�eta did not relinquish his command even after the Peruvian royalists included him and his forces in the capitulation agreement following their defeat in the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, the final battle of the wars of independence in Latin America. Ola�eta continued a quixotic war until Sucre's forces defeated his forces, and he was killed by his own men on April 1, 1825, in a battle that effectively ended Spanish rule in Upper Peru. The most interesting thing about my country was all of the festivals they had. I love parties so that caught my attention. I liked the way they dressed up in colorful clothes and danced around. I think it would be cool to visit there one day. Bibliography:

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