t to order air strikes against North Vietnam. They painted the second attack to be a certainty, convincing the Congress, press, and public, while substantial firsthand accounts left themselves short of certain. His administration also declared that North Vietnam’s aggressive intent was evident through these two unprovoked attacks and, therefore, a congressional resolution that authorized the president to take all necessary measures in protecting American interests in Southeast Asia was required. (3) Obvious discrepancies exist between the Johnson administration’s account and the modern-day accepted version of the Gulf of Tonkin incidents, which should be viewed with knowledge of the administration’s desire for a resolution.As Johnson’s staff advocated the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution’s passage through Congress based on the certainty of the incidents, legitimate doubts about their occurrence cast questions to the executive’s actions. In reference to the second incident, Commodore John J. Herrick, in charge of the Maddox’s reconnaissance mission in the gulf told the Pentagon, “Review of action makes many recorded contacts and torpedoes fired appear doubtful. Freak weather effects and overeager sonar men may have accounted for many reports. No actual visual sightings by Maddox. Suggest complete evaluation before any further action.”(4) In spite of having this firsthand opinion, Johnson and his staff went ahead with air strikes and their misrepresentation of the Gulf of Tonkin incidents, which influenced the Congress as they passed the resolution nearly unanimously.Convinced by Johnson’s swift and stern actions, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution having no idea it would be used by presidents to legitimize American involvement in the Vietnam War for years to come. On August 7, 1964, a unanimous House of Representatives and a Senate with only two dissenters passed a...
