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After the Conquest of 1763, the inhabitants of New France now found themselves under the control of the British monarch. However, the life for the inhabitants of New France, virtually remained unchanged. It was not until the American Revolution, that the inhabitants of New France began to feel the British presence. As a result of the American Revolution many British subjects, who became known as the United Empire Loyalists migrated north to the British colonies. The loyalists who settled in colonies were uneasy by the lack of government and demanded that some form of government be established. The British, who feared another war in North America, were quick to appease the loyalists concerns. Thus in 1791 the Constitution Act was implemented. From its implementation major clashes developed between the French and English populations. These major clashes in Lower Canada in the first decade of the nineteenth century were caused by the implementation of the Constitution Act of 1791. It will be shown that the French-Canadian response to these tensions gave way for the birth of The Constitution Act of 1791, which was a result of loyalists demands, left some English feeling somewhat dissatisfied, particularly with the division of the colony into In Lower Canada the French population held an overwhelming majority with 146, 000 over the English population which was only 10,000. The French population, who were pleased that they were a majority in their own colony, also had concerns with the Constitution Act of 1791. The French population consisted mainly of habitants, and other lower class trades. On the opposite end of the spectrum was the English population who dominated the industrial and commercial sectors of Lower Canada(particularly the region around the St. Lawrence). This gave the English a huge advantage over the French, economically and socially. The French and English who basically lived independent from one another, did feel immediate tensions, yet for the Canadiens it was the threat of assimilation that always lingered. The implementation of the British Parliamentary system in Lower Canada that saw the tensions between French and English reach a peak. Under the British Parliamentary system there was a governor of Lower Canada, who was appointed by the British; an executive council and a legislative council, which were appointed and an elected assembly. The appointments of these councils were decided by the British and hence a system of heritoscracy was in place. This developed a situation in which the Canadiens were a distinct minority in the non-elective branches of the government: in the legislative council they had seven out of sixteen members, and in the executive council they had four out of nine. The only possibility that could allow Canadien representatives in the government was the elected assembly. However, with the results of the first election it showed that this was not even guaranteed. With the English population, only a fifteenth of the total had almost a third of the seats in the assembly. With the English minority having the majority in the government the Canadien were virtually unrepresented within the new political system. To make matters worse the governor had the ability to veto any bill the assembly brought forth. The Canadiens ignorance to the British Parliamentary system demanded their immediate attention or face possible consequences of assimilation. Within the political arena the Canadien representatives were quick to act on the issue on language. In what language was the new government to function? The issue of language managed to creep into the forefront of politics in the first meeting. There needed to be a election for the speaker of the assembly, and of course there was immediate discussion over the need for the speaker to be bilingual. After debates were heard, the vote was taken and Jean-Antoine Panet, the French nominee was elected. However, this was not the last of the languages debates. The official language of the legislature still needed to be decided. The end result seemed satisfactory to the English and French. The records of the legislature were to be kept in French and English. The Canadiens were beginning to use the British Parliamentary system in a way that would help secure their own distinctiveness. The majority of the French population of this time was still agrarian based. However, there was an increased awareness of the ability for French to hold other positions in society. The rise of the lawyers and notaries was a result. An increasing number of French were furthering their education and learning the British political system. These men were described by Governor Craig as the ‘new order of men’, these men were becoming the leaders of the habitants. The lack of experience shown by Canadiens in the representative government, was disappearing. These professional men, held confidence in what they knew and in the system itself. As these professionals grew in the assembly, the seigneurs, who up until this point occupied the seats in the assembly, were being pushed out. Interestingly enough the seigneurs made allies of the English legislative and executive councils. The seigneur’s were in fear of the new government and wanted to ensure their economic place within Lower Canada. One way for them to do this was by siding with the economic strong holders of Lower Canada. The opposing sides of government were taking on new qualities. At first the divisions were only French verus English, but the fact that the seigneurs were siding with the English now created lines of economic division. As well, the needs, desires and aims of the assembly became pivoted against those of the executive and legislative councils. Even with the rise of the new class of professionals(middle-class) the English and the councils were considered to be of higher class. The British parliamentary system made clear distinctions between classes. The professional class did not only work though the assembly alone. Political opinions were developed through the newspapers. One newspaper in general Le Canadien, was used as a tool by the new professionals. The paper reflected the views of this new group, it became an instrument for these men, to get their beliefs out. After further investigation into Le Canadien by the councils, Craig reported that Le Canadien was primarily if not entirely supported by the Leaders of the assembly. Le Canadien explored political and constitutional matters, but it was also found to defend the character of the French Canadians against the malicious attacks of the Quebec Mercury. The Quebec Mercury was the rival paper to Le Canadien. Quebec Mercury’s supporters included the English merchants and many appointees from the executive and legislative councils. At this point in time is where the development of the newspaper as a form of mass communication(for the masses) arises. The newspapers were key instruments in which the ideas of the professional class were articulated in such a manner as to explain the new system of government as a benefit to the Canadiens. The inhabitants were shown the glories of the their new constitutionalism and instructed in the functioning of its various parts. Le Canadien and the Quebec Mercury quickly began to play out the political tensions. The debates at one point were so vicious that the Quebec Mercury was charged with libel. The Quebec Mercury was ordered to write a public apology. Obviously this did not go over well with the English and again the tensions The professional class that began to dominate the elected assembly, received little recognition as educated and worthy politicians. Governor Craig attitudes towards the Canadiens was that they were drunken and grossly ignorant people, ant that their religion should be placed under Anglican hierarchy. Craig also believed that the assembly was made up of enemies of Britain; petty lawyers and notaries that knew nothing of the British Constitution or legislature, although they confess to the opposite, and that these members were doing all that could be done to bring the loss of Canada to Britain. The animosity felt by Governor Craig towards the Canadiens, was taken with great stride by the members of the assembly at whom they were directed to. Pierre Bedard, seen as a leader of this new professional class and one of the founders of Le Canadien, felt the greatest repercussions from the English. Pierre Bedard along with other members of Le Canadien were jailed. After the other men were released from prison, Bedard remained incarcerated for one year. However this incarceration did make Pierre Bedard hostile but rather more determined to win the political system and the English. After his release, Pierre Bedard made this address to his constituents: The Past ought not to discourage us, nor diminish our regard for the constitution. All other forms of government are subject to such abuses . . . All our contestations with the executive have eventuated in developing those advantages the constitution has vested us with. A master-work is best known by its practical operation. To enable us to appreciate the utility of each of the springs in the state machine, we have but to be deprived of its use altogether. It is, besides, in the nature of things that great advantages should be obtained by some sacrifices. Pierre Bedard remained composed during this period where he directly felt the wrath of Governor Craig. Governor Craig’s tenor was referred to as the Reign of Terror. Pierre Bedard believed in the system and believed that this system could work for the Canadiens. The increased awareness that the professional class brought to the inhabitants, had effects on other aspects of Lower Canadian society. The political arena gave a voice to the inhabitants, which resulted in the economics conflicts between the French and English. The economic stratification between the French and the English was always a cause for numerous debates within the government. The English merchants felt it essential that the political structure of Lower Canada change in order to help the advancement of commercialism, and as they found out this advancement was not a high priority of the Canadiens. Thus the English merchants and the councils believed that the Canadiens were holding back ‘progress’. Again the assembly was divided but not only was it French verus English, it had become a battle between the farmers and professional class against the merchants. In order for the commercial industry in Lower Canada to grow, the merchants were demanding that money be put into the water system, via canals. In order to build canals, the merchants sought financial support from the government. The farmers and professional class were unwilling to give government money to help the merchants, and believed that the money was best spent building roads in French communities. The tensions between the professional class and farmers and merchants heighten when discussions of where this money might come from. The obvious source of income was At this time the farmers and professional class paid no direct taxes, and felt that there was no reason for this change. They believed the solution was to increase tariffs and develop a sales tax on commerce, however merchants favored the development of a tax on property. Despite all protests the merchants made towards the passage of such a bill proved to be futile, the bill that was passed favored the farmers and professional class. The social aspects of Lower Canada were also a cause of some clashes. Essentially, the problem was that the Canadiens, were Canadiens and not Canadians. The Canadiens were still partial to their own habits, religion, and laws, and were unwilling to conform to the British social customs. This unwillingness to conform to the British society again sparked the issue of assimilation. Recommendations were being put forth by numerous British government officials. These recommendations included an increase of British and American immigration into Lower Canada, an uniting of Upper and Lower Canada(create a minority French population) and strict control over the Catholic Church and education. The immediate attempts or suggestions of uniting the two colonies was disregarded, but the issues of education and religion were seen as good solutions. The education system in Lower Canada had always been controlled by the Catholic Church. Thus within the education system, there were deep rooted links to the French Therefore the British knew that to try to separate the Canadien from their customs they would have to start with the education. The English were desiring a state-controlled education system, while the Catholic Church felt the education system should remain under their control. The British felt the biggest benefit from abolishing the Catholics hold on education was the assumed language implications. Numerous attempts had been made within the assembly to answer this question however, it was not simple. In 1801 the Education Bill was passed, which established the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning. Its controlling body consisted of the governor, the lieutenant-governor, the Anglican bishop, the chief justice, and the speaker of the assembly. The creation of the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning was seen as a threat to the survival of French culture. However the system did not advance very well and education was kept in the hands of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church was thought to be one of the most powerful institutions in Lower Canada, with regards to the Canadiens. Before the Conquest the church was a high authority figure in New France. With the Conquest and the Constitution Act of 1791, the Church was skeptical of the implementation of government. The Catholic Church felt threatened by its development because it was quite possible that the Canadiens would stray from the Catholic Church. They feared this system for it might steer away from the Catholic Church as being a source of power. The Catholic Church and their Bishop did not exist legally in Lower Canada, and for that they were unable to take any concerns to the They had to sit passively by and watch as the English tried to develop new laws that would eliminate the Catholic Church for good. However, it was not only the Anglican Churches and British government officials that the Catholic Church began to feel pressure from. The Catholic Church was also struggling with internal problems. The Catholic Church had been suffering from a shortage of priests and vocations, and there was a poor quality of theoretical training, and that the priests were being sent out to young and unprepared for the parishes. The Catholic Church needed help but was unable to receive it. The Catholic Church asked for more priests to be sent from France, however they were denied because they might provide the Canadiens with their origins and in return meddle into political affairs. Till this point the Catholic Church remained neutral in the affairs of the government, it was crucial to remain in good relations with the government. In order to do so they needed not make any obvious political backings. With the professional class some were already straying from the Catholic Church. The threat that assimilation created was also very close to the Catholic Church. It was seen that assimilation was possible if the Catholic Church was subverted. Most attempts by officials to start an assimilation, resulted in views or programs of Anglicanization. However, all attempts were useless and the Catholic Church In the last decade of the eighteenth century and the first decade of the nineteenth century, we see the development of French Canadian nationalism. It was the implementation of the British Parliamentary system ,and the Canadiens refusal to passively sit back and embrace assimilation that sparked this nationalism. The nationalism was also a product of the emerging professional class, which went on to dominant the assembly and bring the complexity of the British Constitution to a level which could be understood by all Canadiens. The political, social and religious conflicts that evolved in the first decade of the nineteenth century were all connected. It seemed to be a cycle of clashes, the political would spark the economic and the economic would spark the social, and then back to political. French-Canadian nationalism was developed out of a series of defensive reflexes that were brought on by the numerous challenges that they faced in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Le Canadien, as a form of mass communication, not only addressed the concerns of politics but it also emphasized anything that differed from the English would show French distinctiveness. The clashes that were seen throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, were more then just ethnic or racial clashes, it was the beginning of a fight for survival by the Canadiens. It was not the actions of one particular person, or one particular clash that gave birth to French-Canadian nationalism. It was that the Canadiens began to see themselves as a collective whole, a shared consciousness had developed and from that French-Canadian nationalism emerged. French and English Clashes in the first decade of the nineteenth century & the Birth of Bibliography: BIBLIOGRAPHY Creighton, Donald. The Empire of the St. Lawrence. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada Limited, 1956. Garneau, F. X.. History of Canada. Montreal: John Lovell, 1862. Ouellet, Fernand. “French-Canadian Nationalism: Its Origins to the Insurrection of 1837,” in Dale Miquelon, ed., Society and Conquest. Toronto: Copp Clark Publishing, 1977, pp. 171-186. Smith, Lawrence A. H.. “Le Canadien and the British Constitution”, in Ramsay Cook, Craig Brown, Carl Berger, eds., Constitutionalism and Nationalism in Lower Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969, pp. 17-32. Wade, Mason. The French Canadians: 1760 - 1967. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1968. Wade, Mason. The French-Canadian Outlook. New York: McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1964. Wallot, Jean-Pierre. “The 1800's”, in J. M. Careless, ed., Colonists ans Canadiens: 1760 - 1867. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1971, pp. 95-121. Word Count: 2885
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