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One of the key factors in conformity, however, is yielding to group pressure, as defined by Mann (1969): “ The essence of conformity is yielding to group pressures but it may take other forms and be based on motives other than group pressures” One of the first empirical studies to illustrate conformity was conducted by Jeness (1932) where he asked individual students to estimate the number of beans in a bottle and discuss it to arrive at a group estimate. When they were asked individually to make a second estimate there was a distinct shift towards the group estimate. Sherif (1935) conducted a similar experiment using a visual illusion called the autokinetic effect, whereby a stationery spot of light seen in a dark room appears to move. He moved the light around and asked participants to estimate how far the light had moved. They were tested individually being asked to estimate the extent of movement several times. The estimates fluctuated but then settled down and became more consistent. There were wide differences between participants. After hearing the estimates of other participants (the group situation) the estimates of different participants converged to form a group norm which represented the average of individual estimates. According to Sherif, the participants used others estimates as a frame of reference in what was an ambiguous situation. When participants were asked to individually make a second estimate their answers closely resembled the norm. Asch (1951) was critical of Sherif's findings and claimed that the task used by Sherif was ambiguous which made it difficult to draw any conclusions about conformity. He believed that conformity should be measured in terms of the individual’s tendency to agree with other group members who unanimously give the wrong answer when the solution is obvious. If people yield to group pressure under these conditions then this is a much stricter test of conformity. In 1951, Asch performed the Asch paradigm where he gave participants the simple perceptual task of matching one line (standard line) with another line (comparison line); each presented on a separate card. They had to say which of A.B or C was the same length as the standard line. A group of 36 control participants made three mistakes when tested 20 times. In the original experiment students were tested in groups of 7 – 9 in which only one person was a real participant, the others being confederates of Asch who had been instructed to give the wrong answers. They were seated either in a straight line or round a table so that the real participant was the last to answer. In the first two trials (neutral trials) the confederates and the real participant gave the correct answers. On the third trial the confederates agreed on the wrong answer. During the experiment there were ii additional critical trial and six neutral trails. The basic conformity rate was 32 %, which meant that on average participants gave the wrong answers on one third of the critical trials by agreeing with the confederate majority. However, this overall conformity rate of 32% reveals large individual differences when 25% showed no conformity at all and remained independent throughout the critical trials. 47% gave between one and seven incorrect answers and 28% gave eight or more incorrect answers making 75% who conformed at least once. Only 5% conformed on every critical trial. The Asch studies played an influential and fundamental role in establishing conformity theories and stimulated a great deal of research following the studies. In 1974 Larsen found lower conformity rates than Asch had found among groups of American students and suggested this was because of a changed climate of opinion in America in 1970’s towards independence and criticism and away from conformity. However, in a later study in 1979 by Larsen et al they found results very similar to those of Asch. Perrin and Spencer found lower rates of conformity in 1981 (one out of 396 trials) for a group of British students but were chemistry, maths and engineering students and so were better adapted to resist conformity pressure due to their better knowledge and experience. Significantly, in the same study young offenders in probation showed similar results to Asch’s study. One of the main criticisms of Asch’s studies was that participants were conforming because they were reluctant or embarrassed to expose their private views in a face to face situation. Thus, the level of conformity should decrease if they are allowed to write their answers down where there is no face to face contact between group members. Crutchfield (1954) used a non- face to face procedure. He criticised Asch’s experiments for being time consuming and uneconomical since only one participant could be tested at a single time. He changed his experiment so that several real participants (usually 5) could be tested at the same time. He tested over 600 participants. Each participant sat in an open cubicle, which had a panel with an array of lights, and switches and neighbouring panels could not be seen. Questions pictures and other stimuli were projected on the wall and participants were told that the lights on the display panel indicated the answers of other participants. Every participant saw an identical display and received the same information so that each believed they were the last to respond. The answers were wrong on half the trials. Crutchfield presented a verity of different tasks so conformity to the wrong answers differing according to the type of task involved. On the Asch type perceptual judgement task he found 30 % conformity. When the participants were asked to complete a series of numbers he found 30% conformity. Some of his participants were army officers and agreed with the statement “ I doubt whether I would make a good leader” but when presented in the booth significantly none of them agreed with the statement when tested privately. Overall Asch’s study had many limitations and it did not take into consideration unambiguous tasks as well as ambiguous tasks but his studies did provide a fundamental basis for further studies of conformity and they initiated a number of theories about conformity. Crutchfield’s study explored more areas of conformity and addressed ambiguous as well as unambiguous tasks. However, as there was no face to face contact he did not address the fact that in real life people usually do have contact with other ‘group member’ when addressing your opinion to others. Bibliography: Introductory Psychology By Richard Gross Word Count: 1152
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