ts have been investigated in samples of people with HIV: optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1987) and hardiness (Kobasa, Maddi, & Kahn, 1982). Optimism has been associated with lower levels of distress, using positive attitudes, less avoidance of other people, and fewer AIDS-related concerns (Taylor et al., 1992). Research using the Kobasa hardiness scale has supported the benefits of hardiness in individuals with HIV. The hardiness scale includes a commitment to work and others subscale, a tendency to view stressors as challenges subscale, and an internal control subscale. Although there have been failures to replicate (Blaney et al., 1991), the Kobasa commitment subscale was related to hopefulness in people with HIV (Rabkin, Williams, Neugebauer, Remien, & Goetz, 1990), and the overall hardiness scale predicted decreased distress (Zich & Temoshok, 1987). Having a sense of control over the HIV infection appears to promote better mental and physical health outcomes (Rabkin et al., 1990; Solomon & Temoshok, 1987). People develop a variety of strategies for maintaining a sense of control. Patients with diseases such as cancer and AIDS often realize that they cannot control whether they become cured (Taylor, Helgeson, Reed, & Skokan, 1991). To maintain a sense of control, people with chronic disease often switch the arena in which they perceive control. They focus on controlling their daily symptoms and influencing the medical care they receive (Taylor et al., 1991). Data suggest that the development of a subjective sense of control over daily events and symptoms is helpful. PWAs exhibiting a stronger belief in their own control over the course of daily life and over the degree of subjective physical discomfort display less overall distress (Reed, Taylor, & Kemeny, 1993; Taylor et al., 1991; Thompson, Nanni, & Levine, 1994). PWAs with a greater sense of control also enjoy longer survival time (Solomon & Temoshok, 1987). OPTIMISM AND DENIAL In ter...
