Data Bases • Custom Term Papers • Free Term Papers • Free Research Papers • Free Essays • Free Book Reports • Plagiarism? Links • Top 100 Term Paper Sites • Top 25 Essay Sites • Top 50 Essay Sites • Search 97,000 Papers @ DirectEssays.com • Search 101,000 Papers @ ExampleEssays.com • Search 90,000 Papers @ MegaEssays.com Free Essays • Term Paper Sites • Chuck III's Free Essays • Free College Essays • TermPaperSites.com • My Term Papers • Get Free Essays • Essay World • Planet Papers	Search Lots of Essays Back to Subjects - Psychology Psyco Theory Psyco Theory The purpose of this study was threefold: first, to examine whether gender and ethnic differences exist in college students' (n = 402) classroom perceptions and motivation; second, to investigate how classroom perceptions impacted upon students' motivation; and third, to test whether there existed interactions between classroom perceptions, gender, and ethnicity that resulted in differential patterns of motivation. Our initial tests of group differences in motivation and classroom perceptions yielded several significant main effects for gender, but ethnicity was significant in only one instance; differences in classroom perceptions were also related to differences in motivation. We found several two-way interactions between ethnicity and classroom perceptions, but no three-way interactions emerged. These results offer further support for the idea that the lens through which students view the classroom does indeed differ according to social grouping, and that those lenses do indeed impact upon students' motivation. Increasingly, educational researchers are finding that what students think about the classroom is as important as what they do in the classroom. Students' perceptions have been found to influence personal motivation; these perceptions encompass many areas and include self-perceptions (e.g., perceived ability level, goals, interests) social perceptions (e.g., perceived ability of peers, teacher expectations and opinions), and other classroom factors (e.g., course value, environmental factors) (Schunk & Meece, 1992). Recent work indicates that women and men may differ greatly in their classroom perceptions and educational experiences, even when they are members of the same classroom: specifically, that females tend to perceive the classroom to be "colder" than do males (Constantinople, Cornelius, & Gray, 1988; Hall and Sandler, 1982). However, subsequent studies have produced mixed results for the claim of a "chilly classroom climate" (Crawford & McLeod, 1990). Heller, Puff, and Mills (1985) found no gender differences in perceptions; however, their study concentrated on overall experiences at college, rather than focusing on specific classrooms. Crawford and McLeod (1990) narrowed the scope to individual classrooms but still did not find gender to be a strong influence on perceived classroom climate, although they did maintain that women perceive themselves to be less involved and less verbally engaged in the classroom than their male counterparts. Given the equivocality of prior research, we sought to clarify the relationship between gender and classroom perceptions. In addition to gender, evidence exists which suggests that one's ethnicity also affects whether the classroom is perceived as cold. For instance, many practices of American public schools and universities, such as competition, challenging authority and praise for individual ability, contradict the cultural beliefs of many Latino and Asian-American students. Not only may American schooling contradict these students' cultural systems, but it may also undermine their sense of well-being and self-confidence (Trueba & Cheng, 1993), because the ethnic identity of Asian and Latino children is often based on their relation to their group. In contrast, American schooling emphasizes independence, individualism, and competition. There are many dimensions on which classrooms may be evaluated, and certainly many environmental factors that may affect students' motivation. This body of research has suggested that three variables seem particularly promising: perceptions of competition; classroom goal orientation; and perceived course meaningfulness. In the academic setting competition has been reported to reduce students' intrinsic interest in tasks (Deci, Betley, Kahle, Abrams, & Porac, 1981). Also, children experience significant negative effects as well as a deflated sense of their own competence in competitive academic situations when they don't perceive themselves as "measuring up" (Ames & Ames, 1984). In general, public evaluation that invites social comparison has been found to negatively affect motivation (Ames, 1992). Furthermore, research also suggests that male students more than females report that they thrive on classroom competition (Eccles, MacIver, & Lange, 1986). Evidence also exists that some minority groups also dislike competition and avoid it. Asian children tend to avoid competitive situations because drawing attention to oneself can bring considerable distress (Baruth & Manning, 1992). Given these gender and ethnic differences, the amount of competition which students perceive in the classroom could certainly affect motivation negatively. Although group differences in gender and ethnicity have been established, little is known about how these two factors interact. Our large sample size allowed us to test interactions between gender, ethnicity, and classroom perceptions, to examine their individual and joint effects on student motivation. Recent work has demonstrated that the environment of the classroom also affects the types of goals which students adopt (Ames & Archer, 1988). If students perceive that their teachers emphasize relative ability and competition, they are likely to adopt ability focused goals; when students feel that their teachers or classrooms value task mastery, they are likely to adopt task-focused goals. The goals adopted by students are related to many important psychological outcomes. For example, students who pursue task-oriented goals tend to use deep cognitive processing strategies, to be more creative, and to continue to be interested in a task after formal instruction is completed, while the opposite holds true for students who pursue ability goals (Graham & Golan, 1991; Pintrich & De Groot, 1989; Pintrich & Garcia, 1991). Studies indicate that teachers encourage female and Latino students in particular to adopt ability-focus goal orientations when they attribute academic errors to the student's lack of intellectual ability, or offer unsolicited assistance (Dweck, & Leggett, 1988; Graham, 1991). Because ability-focused classes seem to produce detrimental effects, it is important to see how gender and ethnicity affect student perceptions of this factor (cf. Graham, 1992; 1994). Student's perceptions of course meaningfulness, or relevance to their personal lives, can also contribute to their overall satisfaction and performance in a course (Schunk & Meece, 1992). Although both males and females cite course meaningfulness as one of the major sources of their motivation and enjoyment (Gorham & Christophel, 1992), females tend to place even more importance on this factor. In fact, research indicates that a primary reason females tend to value and enroll in courses is because the courses seem relevant to their lives and will thus make them more well-rounded (Wilson, Stocking & Goldstein, 1994). Furthermore, African-American students have named lack of course meaningfulness as an important reason that they drop out of school (Garibaldi, 1992). These gender and ethnic differences need more scrutiny so that their effects may be clarified and fully understood. Research relevant to ability-based classrooms has focused to date almost entirely on elementary school classrooms, with little emphasis on gender differences. The same is true for the effects of student perceptions of competition in the classroom, as well as the meaningfulness of classes. And while gender differences in this regard have seldom been examined, even fewer studies of ethnic differences in classroom perceptions have been reported (Graham, 1992; 1994). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was threefold: first, to examine whether gender and ethnic differences exist in college students' classroom perceptions and motivation; second, to investigate how classroom perceptions impacted upon students' motivation; and third, to test whether there existed interactions between classroom perceptions, gender, and ethnicity that resulted in differential patterns of motivation. Bibliography: Word Count: 1160
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