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The Great Debate

The Great Debate I'd like to know why, the other day, I had this random thought: “I'm a bit hungry. I'd like to eat a carrot. “ Two theories would explain this seemingly unimportant thought as follows: - As a child, you received positive verbal reinforcement for eating a carrot, and still expect such positive factors to happen if you continue such behaviour. - You are trying to suppress your hidden cravings for violence and sex by sublimating your energy into random thoughts, although some unconscious "id" needs are being shown - after all, a carrot is a phallic symbol. In the first part of this paper I shall summarise the concepts of Psychoanalysis and Behaviour theories, as in my view theory in itself is an argument for a concept. Theory is a collection of propositions to illustrate principles of a subject (Oxford Dictionary, 1976). Secondly this paper explores similarities concerning the theories, eventually leading to a conclusion concerning their significance in today’s therapeutic arena. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Model:- The data and observations are gathered from case studies of clinical practice in psychoanalysis, as well as from Freud’s self-analysis. The key motivational forces are sex and aggression; the need to reduce tension resulting from internal conflicts. Personality is structured around three interacting components (id, ego, superego) operating at three levels of consciousness (conscious, preconscious, unconscious). Developmental emphasis is on fixation or progress through psychosexual stages; experiences in early childhood (such as toilet training) can leave a lasting mark on adult personality. Origins of disorders are unconscious fixations and unresolved conflicts from childhood, usually centring on sex and aggression. In arguing that behaviour is governed by unconscious forces, Freud suggested that people are not masters of their own minds and that behaviour is greatly influenced by how people cope with their sexual urges (Weiten, 1995, pg11). Most psychologists viewed psychoanalytic theory as unscientific speculation that would eventually fade away, but by the 1940’s psychoanalysis was so popular that it threatened to eclipse psychology entirely. (Hornstein, 1992). Because of the popularity of psychoanalysis, psychologists were forced to apply scientific methods to the topics of personality, motivation, and abnormal behaviour. In studying these topics, many of them saw merit in some of Freud’s concepts (Rosenzweig, 1985). Freud re-awakened popular interest in the importance of the dreaming mind and stressed the healing power of interpretation by an expert psychoanalyst. (Siegel, 1985). “To be concerned with dreams is a form of self-realisation” What happens in psychoanalysis is that people tell stories with meanings, metaphors and symbols. They tell them again and again, in search of insight, (Young,1995). During interaction transference (interacting with the therapist as one would with a significant other) occurs, which is an important factor in analysis. The fundamental theory of change is that what is unconscious does not change and what is conscious can be changed, therefore the aim is to make the unconscious, conscious (Weiten, 1995). Newer approaches have placed less emphasis on unconscious processes and free-association in favour of more direct communication. Therapy is mostly time-consuming, lasting up to 5 years, although new approaches have sought to decrease the length of therapy. The goal in therapy is to pursue increased insight regarding the nature of the client’s difficulties and to sort through possible solutions. (Weiten, 1995). - Can be useful in understanding interactions between therapists and clients. - Clients can develop a useful understanding of the meaning of their symptoms. - Time consuming – therefore less viable economically (web address:-courses.washington.edu) Skinner’s Behavioural Model:- Unlike the many psychological theories that doom us to the personality and behaviour patterns we were born with or inherited, behavioural therapy says that we can change (Sachs, 1997). The scientifically oriented behavioural view sources data and observations from laboratory experiments primarily with animals. Key motivational forces are the pursuit of primary (unlearned) and secondary (learned) reinforcers; priorities depend on personal history. Behaviourists devote little attention to personality structure as it is unobservable, however Skinner did not deny the existence of internal mental events, and he repeatedly acknowledged that an organism’s behaviour is influenced by it’s biological endowment. Skinner simply argued that psychology could understand and predict behaviour (through stimulus-response analyses) adequately without resorting to physiological explanations (Delprato & Midgely, 1992). In his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) Skinner asserted that behaviour is governed by external stimuli and that we are all controlled by our environment, not ourselves, concluding that “free will is an illusion”. Behaviourists view personality as an individual’s collection of response tendencies. Personality development evolves gradually over the life span (not in stages); responses followed by reinforcement become more frequent. Maladaptive behaviour is due to faulty learning; what is observable is the problem, not a sign of underlying disease (Weiten, 1995). Behavioural analysis attempts to identify environmental and person variables that are thought to be maintaining maladaptive thoughts, feelings or behaviour - “What is causing the person to behave this way right now and what can we do right now to change that behaviour?” Therapy attempts to eliminate maladaptive behaviours through the acquisition of more adaptive responses. There is dynamic interaction between therapist and client and directed work on the part of the client. The client determines the objectives of therapy. Aversion therapy lessons the attractiveness of a particular stimuli and behaviours that are personally or socially harmful through conditioning (Weiten, 1995). Systematic desensitization (Wolpe, 1990) reduces anxiety by conditioning the client to respond positively to stimuli that previously aroused anxiety. Social skills training is used to teach the client new behaviours aimed at enhancing the quality of their interaction with others. (Weiten, 1995). In short behavioural therapy focuses on the main problem without attempting to uncover unconscious processes. It is empirically based, problem oriented, directive and structured (although it does not have a structure of personality). The client controls what, the therapist controls how (Corsini & Wedding, 1995). - Can help in changing behaviours without the need to understand them. - Rapid change is possible, therefore a more plausible option for government funded therapy. - There is ample evidence attesting to the effectiveness of behaviour therapy (Liberman & Bedell, 1989; Rachman & Wilson, 1980) - Narrow reductionistic view that does not encompass cognitive activity. - Highly dependent on consistency which is not always realistic in clinical settings. (web address:-courses.washington.edu) Common Factors of Psychotherapy Models: White western education oriented men developed both models (although Melanie Klein was influential in modern psychoanalysis). This has direct impact concerning applicability to other cultures and to ethnic groups in Western society. Because of cultural, language and access barriers, therapeutic services are under-utilised by ethnic minorities in America as institutions have failed to provide culturally sensitive and responsive forms of treatment for these people. More culturally responsive approaches to treatment will require more minority therapists, special training for therapists and investigation of how traditional therapies can be tailored to be more compatible with specific ethnic groups’ cultural heritage (Weiten,1995). In their entirety, both models could be considered reductionistic. Both behavioural therapy and psychoanalysis have an analytical content and attempt to modify underlying causes of behaviour. Therapists make an analysis of the client’s problem, hence the therapist assumes a greater degree of control of the client as opposed to an holistic approach. Freud and Skinner both claimed that people are not masters of their own minds, therefore “free will” is a fallacy. This undermines the ability of human beings to make healthy life choices in spite of faulty learning and destructive unconscious processes, therefore the concept is disempowering. I found this description of a model interesting as it sums up my views of the two theories. A model is a symbolic representation of something we wish to understand. It imperfectly characterises the entity it represents. Models are not right or wrong and they vary in ability to account for aspects of the phenomena they represent. A good model has a good fit with reality. Models are developed to explain behaviour, predict outcomes, organise assessments and interventions, facilitate communication and recognise new facets of the phenomenon of interest. (web address:courses.washington.edu) There is a difference between modalities, relationships and perspectives. The same modalities may be used in several different perspectives. How they are used in the provider/client relationship will depend on that relationship and the life perspectives of the provider and the client. The most therapeutic attitude for therapist and client alike is one which regards illness, whatever it’s primary symptoms, as an opportunity for personal growth and change with the therapist as a catalyst and guide in this process. It is only the entire perspective which can accurately be labelled, not the technique being used. Westerners identify strongly with definition and structure; we have quickly labelled practices as holistic, humanistic, reductionistic, etc. The practices are simply techniques and methods. The treatments of choice at any level are therefore those which most effectively promote the individual’s capacity for self-awareness and self-care (Gordon, 1985). Both modalities have demonstrated effectiveness in therapy (Weiten, 1995), and although each theory undoubtedly has its’ flaws there remains a place for both in the modern evolutionary psychological arena. “The longer I practice, the less I am awed by the techniques themselves. I am increasingly aware of their utility as vehicles for the healing interaction between me and my patients”. If the hat fits, wear it mindfully. Patchwork hats are colourful, energetic, and creative. They can be co-ordinated with 90% of what’s hanging in the wardrobe. As for the carrot, my answer lies within, I was hungry, and I like carrots………and…………but it could be………or is it……………??? Bibliography: References:- Corsini, Raymond. J. (1995) Current Psychotherapies 5th Edition F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 94-74615 Printed in the USA. Delprato, D.J., & Midgley, B.D. (1992) Some fundamentals of B.F. Skinner’s Behaviorism American Psychologist Journal www.apa.org/journals Gordon, James.S. (1985) Exploration Beyond the Bio Medical Model In : The New Holistic Health Handbook. Shepherd Bliss (Ed) Distributed by Viking Penguin Inc 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York USA Hornstein, G.A. (1992) Paper: The return of the repressed: Psychology’s problematic relations with psychoanalysis, 1909-1960 In : Themes and Variations – Wayne Weiten Brooks/Cole Publishing Company 511 Forest Lodge Road Pacific Grove, CA 93950 USA. Liberman, R.P., & Bedell, J.R. (1989) Behavior Therapy In H.I. Kaplan & B.J. Sadock (Eds) Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/V Wlliams & Wilkins Baltimore. USA. Rachman, S.J. & Wilson, G.T. (1980) The Effects of Psychological Therapy Pergamon Press New York, USA. Rosenzweig, S. (1985) Freud and experimental psychology: The emergence of idiodynamics. In S. Koch & D.E. Leary (Eds.) A Century of Psychology as a Science. McGraw-Hill. New York. Sachs, Judith. (1997) Nature’s Prozac Simon ans Schuster Ltd, West Garden Place Kendal Street London W2 2AQ Siegel, Alan Bryan (1985): Dreams- The Mystery That Heals In : The New Holistic Health Handbook. Shepherd Bliss (Ed) Distributed by Viking Penguin Inc 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York USA The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1976) Oxford University Press Ely House, London W.1 (web address:-www.courses.washington.edu) Weiten, Wayne. (1995) Themes and Variations 3/e Brooks/Cole Publishing Company 511 Forest Lodge Road Pacific Grove, CA 93950 USA. Wolpe. J. (1990) The practice of behavior therapy. Pergamon Press Elmsford, New York, USA. Young, Robert. M. (1995) Whatever Happened to Human Nature? The Winnepeg Lectures and related Essays Process Press Ltd. 26 Freegrove Road London N7 9RQ.

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