Data Bases • Custom Term Papers • Free Term Papers • Free Research Papers • Free Essays • Free Book Reports • Plagiarism? Links • Top 100 Term Paper Sites • Top 25 Essay Sites • Top 50 Essay Sites • Search 97,000 Papers @ DirectEssays.com • Search 101,000 Papers @ ExampleEssays.com • Search 90,000 Papers @ MegaEssays.com Free Essays • Term Paper Sites • Chuck III's Free Essays • Free College Essays • TermPaperSites.com • My Term Papers • Get Free Essays • Essay World • Planet Papers	Search Lots of Essays Back to Subjects - Psychology litery works litery works Structuralism/post-structalism, 1. Origins - Structuralism is derived from linguistics and as such subscribes to an Aristotelian epistemology that believes in the discovery of reliable/concrete truths through the use of the scientific method, system, and reason. On the other hand, poststructuralism hails from philosophy and consequently is skeptical concerning the existence of absolute truth or reliable knowledge. 2. Tone and Style - Due to the scientific outlook that characterizes structuralist criticism, writing by structuralists is often detached and anonymous, whereas post-structuralist writing is much more connected to the text and is clearly the creation of the author. 3. Attitude to Language - Whereas structuralists view the world and reality as constructed through the orderly system of language, post-structuralists see a certain anxiety in the reliance on language as the path to knowledge. Because post-structuralists see meaning as fluid, they emphasize the lack of attachment between the verbal sign and the idea or concept to which it is supposed to refer. This free play of meaning breaks down the concept of signifier/signified in that the relationship can be compromised when everything becomes a signifier -- a sort of chain effect with no beginning or end, or when there are multiple elements on either side of the relationship. The idea that words cannot be defined without viewing them in terms of their opposites also troubles post-structuralists in that this relational nature of language defies the possibility of ‘pure’ or ‘true’ meaning. In the same way that words are influenced by other words, they are also contaminated by their own histories. Since language does not take place within a vacuum -- the very history or connotation of words influences how they are used in present day. 4. Aims - Structuralism is constantly searching for ways to describe the world through the scientific method. Structuralists look for patterns and systems that can change the way we perceive our reality. They seek to describe things that are familiar in terms of systems or structures. Post-structuralists, on the other hand, do not see reality or individuals as constructed through independent systems but a collage of various influences. Structuralism is based on the belief that cultural objects such as literature, art, architecture, etc. cannot be understood in isolation -- they must be studied within the context of the larger structures to which they contribute and within which they developed. In terms of text, it is viewed as a function of a system and not so much as an individual creation. The emphasis is placed not on the author as the origin of the text or of meaning, but on the structures that texts inhabit and how they constrict the culture within which we live. This systematic view of literature is based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist who saw language as a closed or self-contained system. Saussure's conception of language was based on the premise that the meanings that words are associated with are arbitrary and are maintained only through cultural conventions, and that as such these meanings are relational in that no word can be defined in isolation from other words within the same system. Because meaning and representation are arbitrary constructs, Saussure also believed that language is the midium through which reality is established. In other words, language does not merely label the world, but as meaning is attributed to objects/ideas within the mind and expressed through language, reality is created. Key terms used by Saussure and applied to structuralist literary theory are langue -- which represents the whole system of language and the rules and conventions therein, and parole -- any particular utterance within that system that only makes sense when viewed in relation to the larger structure that contains it. Structuralists adapt Saussure's linguistic concepts and apply them to literature. Whereas words within the structure of language have meaning only in relation to other words surrounding them within that system, elements in literature are seen in the same relational terms -- especially in regard to binary oppositions. The meaning attached to each term or concept in an opposing pair is established not by looking outside of the system for a natural equivalent but by comparing/contrasting and/or analyzing the term within the system that contains it. This system is the langua within which certain concepts are defined according to paradigmatic rules and are viewed in terms of simultaneously existing syntagmatic or sequential rules. A general example would be that a certain genre is the langue, the conventions of the genre are the paradigmatic rules and the sequential occurrence of those conventions are the syntagmatic rules, and the specific text that fits into the rules of the langue is the parole. When viewed in these terms, it is clear how scientific and systematic structuralism is regarding the analysis of texts. The first part outlines his ideas on history and a prediction on what is yet to come. He predicts a confrontation between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the working class and the higher class. Because of the main logic behind capitalism the bourgeoisie will seek more power and more wealth. With them doing this, the living conditions of the proletariat will decrease. Numbers of proletariat will increase as well as their political awareness, and will revolt against the bourgeoisie and will eventually win. In the second part Marx discusses the importance of Communism, and if private property is abolished, class distinctions will be as well. The second part also stresses the importance of the necessity of the proletariat and bourgeoisie being common and the level of class being the same. The third part critiques other social ideas of the modern day. The final and fourth part discussed the differences between his political issues as apposed to those of the other oppositonal parties. This part ends in bold capital letters "WORKINGMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!" Marxism is a good system of economics if it is closely examined in its pure state. Marxism promotes equality, employment, health care, and the good of society. Under Marxism, all people are treated equal. A doctor would be equally important as a cab driver and would both make comparable salaries. This practice eliminates the division of society into classes, and decreases the amount of crime because if everyone has the same personal possessions, then there is no reason to steal from one another. Also under this system, there is no unemployment. Because the government owns the means of production, it is able to regulate the employment of its citizens. This system also provides equal health care to all, no matter what one’s profession. Marxism recognizes the importance of every life as a part of the work force and provides measures to keep all its citizens healthy. Probably the best component of Marxism is that the economic systems would only do what it saw as best for the society as a whole. The system proposed by Karl Marx places the good of society as a whole as the most important goal of the government. There are however some flaws of Marxism. The main problem is that is does not allow an individual the freedom to advance himself any further than the next man. All men are not the same. Some are smarter than others and go into professions that should be paid more because they bring more stress onto the individual. Also, another downfall that it has is its association with Communism in the past. The governments that have tried Marxism have failed because of the greed of the ruling party. This is probably going to be the hardest of its flaws for Marxism to overcome. It is virtually impossible to find a person who will lead a government and not try to use his power for his own advancement. The theory behind Marxism is sound, but to date, its application has been less than ideal. Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud was the first to talk about psychoanalysis, a technique that allows an individual to recount dreams but what psychologists call free association. Free association is the individual saying whatever comes to mind when something is said. Psychoanalysts encourage the unconscious mind to recall scenes, thoughts, and to reconstruct past experiences that have shaped the patients present behavior. Freud states that the personality develops in a series of stages. On the same hand, if we resolve our conflicts that arise during our life as they happen, then psychological problems in the future will not occur. That what we believe are spur of the moment decisions etc. are really influenced by the unconscious. Psychodynamic theories are written in the individual, often outside the conscious mind. Human behavior is based on unconscious instincts. Some are aggressive and destructive while others are thirsting for the necessary tools to survive. In the same breath, he says that sexual instinct is the most critical factor for the development of our personality. According to Freud, personality is formed around these structures: the Id, ego, and the super ego. The Id or instinctual needs is the only structure present at birth and is unconscious. It is the collection of unconscious urges and desires that continually seek expression. The ego is the part of the personality that mediates between environmental demands, which are reality, conscience or superego, and Id. It contains all the thinking and reasoning. Lastly, the super ego is the social and parental standards the individual has internalized or the moral conscience of the brain. This is not present at birth, but developed over a period of time. In conclusion, I feel psychoanalysis is a good way to understand why people do what they do, and how to recognize it and have the ability to change it. Although Freud made this discovery at the turn of the century it is still an effective way to deal with current problems some individuals may have. Bibliography: Word Count: 1638
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