e age of twelve than were children of nonsmoking parents. Males were significantly more likely to smoke than females if one or more parent smoked. DeFronzo and Pawlak (1993) likewise found that being female was positively associated with belief and attachment bonds that inhibited smoking and alcohol abuse. The after survey indicated that students who came from homes where both parents smoked, almost half of the students stated that they would or might smoke in the future - twice the proportion of students with one smoking parent and four times that of students with nonsmoking parents. Again, this research confirms previous research in that parents do play a key role in influence when in comes to smoking, even when other factors are figured in as in this study - the anti smoking presentation. Stepping outside of parental attitudes and behavior, DeFronzo and Pawlak (1993) examined the effects of social bonds and childhood experiences on smoking. The sample of 595 subjects (34.8% were smokers) had responded to Ballots B and C on the 1988 General Social Survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center. Overall, there were 17 questions ranging from smoking issues to family connections to commitment-related questions to religious beliefs that were analyzed. Evaluating the results based on the social bond theory, the results of the analysis of the data revealed that religious belief, moral conformity, commitment, and involvement had significant negative effects on smoking; however, attachment was not significant. Adolescents who were beaten and had partial families were more likely to engage in smoking, but the relationship between the two variables was insignificant. An interesting note about the study involves adolescents who live within non-traditional families at the age of 16. DeFronzo and Pawlak found that there was a significant increase in smoking between these adolescents and attributed this influence to a different ...
