consequences consist of two subdivisions as well, perceptions of the likelihood that a behavior will have specific personal effects and evaluations of these effects. Smokers are less likely than nonsmokers to believe that their own smoking will bring about negative consequences like lung cancer, offending others and bad breath (Morgan and Grube, 1989). Smokers often feel that smoking will make them more popular, feel relaxed, and will help them concentrate. Again, the results showed a curvilinear correlation with age. Furthermore, overall relationships between beliefs about consequences and smoking were much stronger in the case of perception of the likelihood of negative consequences and evaluation of them than for positive consequences and evaluations. That is, participants who perceived smoking as unhealthy were more likely to understand that concept and evaluate smoking as a bad habit as compared to those who felt smoking was not detrimental to their health. Interestingly noted, the attitudes toward negative consequences and evaluations increased with age and decreased with positive consequences and evaluations. Social bonding was found to be related to the social control theory previously mentioned. Morgan and Grube’s (1989) data did not support a curvilinear relationship from age 13 to age 17, however. The relationship remained fairly stable, contrasting the previously mentioned studies. Three out of the four social bonds examined were found to have significant correlations with smoking - bonds to schools, religion, and family. In contrast to previous studies mentioned, social bonds to peers were unrelated to smoking behavior. A different approach was used by Sussman, Hahn, Dent, Stacy, Burton, and Flay (1993) that revealed similar results to the Morgan & Grube (1989) study. This study, different from the others, was conducted utilizing naturalistic observation of adolescent tobacco use. The main purpose b...
