een fair to the treatment of Jews until the Counter-Reformation. Pope Paul IV (1555-1559) was a major component in the change of attitudes. During the end of the sixteenth century, ghettos were introduced in Italy. Later they also appeared in the Austrian Empire. (Flannery)One of the bloodiest decade, since biblical times, occurred in Poland (1648-1658). In 1648, the eastern Orthodox Cossacks attacked Poland. The Jews were singled out also. About 100,000 to 500,000 Jews were murdered and 700 of there communities were destroyed. Many refugees fled to other countries. (Flannery) "SOME WERE FLAYED ALIVE AND THEIR SKINS WERE TOSSED TO THE DOGS AS MEAT. OTHERS WERE SEVERELY WOUNDED AND THEN THROWN ONTO THE STREETS…OTHERS WERE BURIED ALIVE. BABIES IN THEIR MOTHERS’ AREMS WERE STABBED TO DEATH…LARGE NUMBERS OF JEWISH CHILDREN WERE THROWN INTO THE WATER IN ORDER TO MAKE THE FORDS MORE LEVEL." (FLANNERY)Once again the Jews were caught in the middle during the Swedish invasion (1655-1658). The Polish Jews were attacked by Russians, Cossacks and Swedes. They were also attacked by the Poles. (Flannery)By the eighteen century, Jews were not welcome by many. One pamphleteer said, "…propose massacres, castrations, and consignment of Jewesses to prostitution…" Catherine II (Russia) wouldn’t allow the Jews to settle in the new provinces they had acquired. Yet, she invited foreigners to stay in central Russia. Still the Jews were excluded. Nicholas I (1825-1855), Catherine’s successor, required Jews to be in the military service. They had to join at age 12 and could last for 25 years. The Jews were sent to isolated area and they were tortured and verbally abused until they renounced their faith and accepted Christianity. (Flannery)In Germany, the Jews continued to suffer. They were repeatedly used as a scapegoat. Germans were in despair after the Franco-Prussian War and the economic crash of...
