d, such as a characteristic to fill a cultural gender role, is also symbolic of western culture. This notion has been defined as consumer culture. In this we buy to fulfill our needs: basic and not- so- basic. (Rafuse, http://rowlf.cc.edu:8080/~market/tj/courses/534/ads.html) Cosmetic surgery of all types, including breast augmentation, is the cultural product of both technology and of a consumer culture which demonstrates how one can buy practically anything, including how they look. (Davis, p.18, 1995)In using the body as a vehicle for self-expression, many feel that this is evident of oppression in a male dominated society. Ideas taken from Sandra Lee Bartky (1988) and Kathryn Pauly Morgan (1986) are expressive of this notion of the expression of femininity as oppression.“It is crucial to understand the central role that the socially sanctioned and socially constructed [notion of] femininity plays in a male supremacist, hetero-sexist society. And it is essential not to underestimate the gender constituting and identity confirming role that femininity plays in bringing women-as-subject into existence while simultaneously creating her as a patriarchal defined object.” (Morgan, p.254, in reader.)In summary, breast augmentations are a way for women to publicly display their conformity to a gender role created by men, “… the male identified woman to the hypothetical male viewer to the cultural norms…[of this society].” (Davis, p. 165, 1995)Another form of a cultural bodily alteration is that of female genital mutilation. This practice concerns the surgical alteration of the female genitalia. There are varying types of F.G.M. identified by the extent of the cutting. The most common type is excision of the clitoris and the labia minora which accounts for around 70 percent of all procedure. About 15 percent are infibulated. This is when the clitoris, labia menora, and labia majora are cut off and what is l...
