ned close to 50 percent. By 1934, two-thirds of tribal land had transferred over to white owners. The IRA successfully ended the policy of land allotment and restored to Native Americans surplus lands created by the Dawes act. Under Collier’s tenure, the shrinkage of Indian real estate reversed and by 1941 it had increased by 4 million acres. Passage of the IRA marked a turning point in governmental policy. It was a formal recognition of the validity of tribal culture and sovereignty. According to Vine Deloria Jr. and Clifford M. Lytle, the IRA was:“important because it directed national policy from a deliberate effort to extinguish tribal governments and customs to a goal of establishing self-government and providing it with sufficient authority and powers to represent the reservation population in a variety of political and economic ventures.” Under IRA provisions, 93 tribes wrote constitutions and 73 tribes chose to incorporate. Ultimately, the IRA would “serve as a foot-in-the-door for later claims to Indian sovereignty and self-determination.” It would be from these humble beginnings that modern tribal governments would eventually evolve. In 1933 and 1934, the Indian New Deal had achieved some significant accomplishments. However, John Collier’s programs were not without its critics. In many ways, the Indian New Deal failed to live up to its lofty goals. Collier himself was often attacked by both Indians and non-Indians for his policies and political tactics.The conservation and relief programs advocated by Collier were not always successful. In Oklahoma, lands owned by Indians were widely dispersed thus making the Indian Civilian Conservation program ineffective. In Oregon, a poorly managed beetle control project on the Klamath reservation went awry resulting in several hundred dollars of damage. Navajo council member, Jacob Morgan, accused the government of wasting money on worthless equipm...
