Not only do sounds change geographically and socially, they also change with the passing of time, and with dramatic events such as a long-time occupation by another linguistic group (The Philippines are a good example, as they were occupied by Spanish-speaking and then English-speaking invaders not so long ago).

Pedagogically, this flux and this variety of influences render the learning of English pronunciation not so easy an enterprise for learners of English as a foreign language (Which teacher's pronunciation is the model to imitate?). The problem is compounded by the natural tendency of learners to transfer pronunciation and intonation from their native language (such as the rhotocization of Arabic and the Romance languages, and the non-rhotocization of Black African, Chinese, and Japanese dialects--not to omit BBC English).

Conventionally, the history of the English language is divided into three broad periods, viz. Old English (c. 450-1100), Middle English (c. 100-1500), and Modern English (from c. 1500). Some linguists may also use the term World English (1960s) to denote English as a world language suffering (or enjoying) changes differen

All these changes transformed Old English into a Middle English that became virtually another language. In essence, Middle English blended Germanic and Romance sound systems. Words of Germanic origin were pronounced more or less with the values of Old English, whereas words of Romance origin were pronounced more or less with those of Norman French.

tially in these post-modern times. Others speak of World Englishes to stress the varieties of English as spoken throughout the world today.

As anything that is to be born, there had to be a period of gestation, a transition between Middle English and Early Modern English. Some place the beginning of an accelerated transitional period from the death of Chaucer at the end of the 1400s, and the termination of this period with the return of the monarchy in 1660. The XVth century "witnessed three outstanding developments: the rise of London English, the invention of printing, and the speed of the new learning" (Potter, 1975, p. 882).

Smith, L. (1993). Afterthoughts. London.

English, as we know it today, is the outcome of a relatively short and checkered history. With each subjugation by foreign invaders and with each cultural, economic, and political influence by foreign hordes and nations, came changes in the way the evolving hybridized--and often bastardized--language was spoken and written. This process is continuing today at an accelerated pace with no end in sight. As the expansion of World English permeates every corner of the globe, both differences and samenesses flourish.