rganizing departments, ministries, and agencies on the basis of common or closely related purposes, Grouping like activities in single units, Equating responsibility with authority, Ensuring unity of command (only one supervisor for each group of employees), Limiting the number of subordinates reporting to a single supervisor, Differentiating line (operating or end-purpose) activities from staff (advisory, consultative, or support) activities, Employing the principle of management by exception (only the unusual problem or case is brought to the top), and Having a clear-cut chain of command downward and of responsibility upward.Some critics have maintained that these and other principles of public administration are useful only as rough criteria for given organizational situations. They believe that organizational problems differ and that the applicability of rules to various situations also differs. Public administration has also laid stress upon personnel. The direction has been toward: Meritocracy -- the best individual for each job Competitive examinations for entry Selection and promotion on the basis of merit. Attention has increasingly been given to factors like: Personal attitudes Incentives Personality Personal relationships Collective bargainingIn addition, the BUDGET has developed as a principal tool in: Planning future programs Deciding priorities Managing current programs Linking executive with legislature Developing control and accountabilityRecent interpretations The orthodox doctrine rested on the premise that administration was simply the implementation of public policies determined by others. According to this view, administrators should seek maximum efficiency but should be otherwise neutral about values and goals. During the great depression & World War II, however, it became increasingly evident that: Many new policies originated within the administration Policy and value judgments were virtually contained in...
