cation of some form of physical pain in response to undesirable behavior. Harris, Holden, and Miller (1999) found that many parents use spanking and feel it is justified because, in the parents opinion, it corrects the childs misbehavior quickly. Straus and Gelless study (cited in Donnelly, Lewis, Mahoney, and Maynard, 2000) reported Almost all mothers (92%) and fathers (86%) in the United States report using some type of physical discipline with 3-to 6-year-old children. Both research groups agree that there are clear implications for intervention or prevention of harsh punishment, especially since punishment often only produces short-term effects. If punishment is to be effective it must be consistent so it wont cause high rates of disobedience. There should be some discussion of the reasoning for punishment. Positive discipline is a means of encouraging positive behavior. It allows the child to know what behaviors would be favored. Reinforcing emerging desirable behaviors with frequent praise and ignoring trivial misdeeds; and modeling orderly, predictable behavior, respectful communication, and collaborative conflict resolution strategies all help to encourage positive behaviors. Positive discipline is favored over punishment because it should reduce the need for punishment once the positive behavior is exhibited more often. Ethnic/SES Issues Socioeconomic status may affect the style of parenting chosen by parents. Bronfenbrenner's (1989) Ecological Systems Theory shows that differences in macrosystems (the general cultural milieu) affect microsystems (such as family, peers, school, and the community) as they influence the child's development. Bronfenbrenner explicitly predicts that macrosystem differences such as socioeconomic status and racial or ethnic group membership result in very different developmental outcomes. In general, parents with higher SES tend to focus more on talking with their kids mor...
