ylvania, almost three-quarters of all suicides that occurred over a 100-year period were in just four families. Studies of twins reared apart provide some support for a genetic influence in suicide. People may inherit a genetic predisposition to certain psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and alcoholism that increase the risk of suicide. In addition, an inability to control impulsive and violent behavior has biological roots. Research has found lower than normal levels of substance associated with the brain chemical seratonin in people with impulsive aggressiveness. In the early 1900s, Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud developed some of the first psychological theories of suicide. He emphasized the role of hostility turned against the self. American psychiatrist Karl Menninger elaborated on Freud’s ideas. He suggested that all suicides have three interrelated and unconscious dimensions: revenge/hate (a wish to kill), depression/hopelessness (a wish to die), and guilt (a wish to be killed). An American psychologist considered to be a pioneer in the modern study of suicide, Edwin Schneidman, has described several common characteristics of suicides. These include a sense of unbearable psychological pain, a sense of isolation from others, and the perception that death is the only solution to problems about which one feels hopelessness and helpless. Cognitive theorists, who study how people process information, emphasize the role of inflexible thinking or tunnel vision and an inability to generate solutions to problems. According to psychologists, many suicide attempts are symbolic cries for help, an effort to reach out and receive attention. Most social scientists believe that a society’s structure and values can influence suicide rates. French sociologist Emile Durkheim argued that suicide rates are related too social integration-that is, the degree to which an individual feels part of a larger group. Durkheim found ...
