real estate, finance, and other highly skilled service areas requiring a college degree. In contrast, the second type of jobs created were low wage jobs in the service sector (i.e., retail, fast food) requiring very little education. Along with the transformation of the economy from manufacturing to the high tech/service sector economy and the movement out of many blue collar jobs, there has been an increase in the number of persons with low education in central cities, particularly young black males (Wilson 1987). Thus, this transformation has lead to a spatial mismatch. The education levels of many persons in urban areas no longer match the required skill levels in the jobs available. Most low educated persons do not have the resources to relocate to areas where the low skilled manufacturing jobs have moved or even to commute to those jobs in situations when movement was to the suburbs (Choke and Shumway 1991). Change in the economic and industrial structure of cities in the United States and changes in the political structure (Wilson, 1979) led to changes in the composition of persons in cities. According to Wilson (1987, 1991), with changes in employment opportunities working and middle classes moved out of central cities leaving the lower class behind (especially the black lower class) with no well paying jobs, opportunities, or positive role models. This movement eventually led to the formation of an urban underclass (or ghetto poor) in U.S. cities, especially in the Northeast and the Midwest. In addition to the importance of class segregation, Massey and Denton (1993) stressed the importance residential segregation played in the formation of the primarily black urban underclass. Thus what has emerged is a large group of people living in the central city with education levels that do not match the jobs available. With the shift in the economy of the Northeast and Midwest from manufacturing to service, the unemployment levels have...
